LIBRARY 

OF   THE 

UNIVERSITY-.  OF  CALIFORNIA. 


Deceived         ti,   /  ,  ,g9 

Accessions  No.  .£~O  I  7  Z. .  Class  No. 


RAILWAY  PROPERTY. 


A   TREATISE 


ON  THE 


CONSTRUCTION  AND  MANAGEMENT 


OP 


RAILWAYS: 


DESIGNED    TO    AFFORD    USEFUL    KNOWLEDGE,    IN    A    POPULAB 

STYLE.    TO  THE    HOLDEES   OF   THIS    CLASS   OF   jPEOPEETY  J 

AS   WELL   AS    TO   BAILWA.Y    MANAGEES,    OFFIOEES, 

AN«    AGENTS. 


BY    JOHN    B.  ^EEYIS, 

CIVIL  ENGINEER. 


Facility  of  Communication,  in  Social,  Commercial  and  Political  Intercourse, 
atatinguishing  Index  of  Civilization. 


PHILADELPHIA: 
HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO., 

INDUSTRIAL  PUBLISHERS,  BOOKSELLERS  AND  IMPORTERS, 
810   WALNUT  STREET. 


7 


BD  according  to  Act  of  Omgrew.  in  tn«  yrw  /MM*  »* 
PHINNEV,  bLAKEMAN    &  MASON. 
r  t»  OVER'S  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States,  tor  the  fcourt 


PREFACE. 


THE  following  pages  have  been  written  with  a  view  of 
giving  to  railway  proprietors,  in  a  popular  form,  the  cha- 
racter of  their  property.  In  this  I  have  aimed  to  give  some 
impression  of  tJ>e  public  importance  of  railways,  but  have 
mainly  discussed  the  methods  of  business  involved  in  their 
construction  and  operating  management.  In  regard  to  con- 
struction, it  has  been  my  cie-sign  to  give  so  much  ol  particulars 
as  will  enable  an  intelligent  buw.ness  man  to  form  a  judgment 
of  the  propriety  of  the  several  proceedings,  and  enable  him 
to  decide  on  their  wisdom  and  expediency,  and  at  the  same 
time  afford  the  junior  engineer  hints  and  outlines  that  may 
be  useful  for  his  consideration.  At  this  time,  the  operating 
management,  providing  as  it  does  for  the  care  of  near  thirty 
thousand  miles  of  railway,  is  far  more  important  than  that  for 
construction,  in  which  there  is  comparatively  little  doing. 

The  care  of  more  than  one  thousand  millions  of  dollars  in- 
vested in  this  kind  of  property,  all  must  admit,  is  of  very 
great  importance  to  the  proprietors.  In  addition  to  tracing 
out,  and  presenting  the  order  of  business,  it  has  seemed  to  me 
necessary  to  point  out  the  danger  to  which  the  property  is 
peculiarly  exposed,  from  infidelity  to  trust.  Though  I  regard 
the  ordinary  and  current  management  of  railways  as  very  far 
from  perfect — far  from  what  it  will  be  by  and  by,  still  tbe^e 
can  be  no  doubt  that  the  failure  of  railway  property  to  reruu- 

iii 


v  PREFACE. 

nerate  the  proprietors,  has,  to  a  large  extent,  resulted  from 
unfaithful  management,  and  therefore  I  have  endeavored 
to  show  the  working  of  this  evil,  and,  so  far  as  practicable,  the 
remedy. 

If,  in  the  following  discussion,  the  prospects  of  this  class  of 
property  do  not  look  as  encouraging  as  could  be  wished,  it 
must  not  be  attributed  to  any  desire  on  my  part  to  disparage 
it;  but  to  the  evils  that  environ  it,  and  the  difficulty  of 
wholly  removing  them.  It  will  be  seen  that  I  do  not  regard 
this  kind  of  investment  as  well  suited,  in  general,  to  small 
proprietors,  so  situated  that  they  can  exercise  no  control,  and 
who  are  exposed  to  the  danger  of  having  their  property 
managed  by  unfaithful  men,  who  seek  to  make  the  institution 
subservient  to  their  own  interest,  rather  than  to  that  of  the 
proprietors. 

All  that  is  solicited  from  the  reader  of  the  following  pages, 
is  a  candid  and  impartial  survey  of  the  subject.  Doubtless  I 
have  advanced  some  opinions  that  will  not  harmonize  with 
much  of  the  existing  management  on  many  railways ;  but  it 
is  confidently  believed  that  time  and  experience  will  fully 
demonstrate  the  soundness  of  these  opinions,  and  ultimately 
introduce  a  practice  that  will  greatly  economize  transport, 
and  extend  the  usefulness  of  this  eminently  beneficent  im- 
provement in  the  means  of  intercommunication. 

The  proficient  in  railway  management  will  find  much  that 
may  appear  to  him  commonplace ;  but  he  will  readily  see, 
that  I  have  written  to  give  useful  information,  chiefly  to 
those  who  have  had  less  experience  than  myself,  and  who,  I 
hope,  will  derive  some  benefit  from  the  labor  I  have  bestowed 
cu  a  subject  of  general,  as  well  as  of  individual  interest. 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

Preface, ui 

Introduction, 9 

CHAPTER  I. 
CONSTRUCTION — Introductory,         .        .        .        .        .        .84 

CHAPTER  H. 
Land  and  Land  Damages, 85 

CHAPTER  III. 
Location  of  Line, 44 

CHAPTER  IV. 
Method  of  Business, 60 

CHAPTER  V. 
Grading, *        •  71 

CHAPTER  VI. 
Bridges  and  Culverts, 92 

CHAPTER  VII. 
Road  Crossings, .113 


VI  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER   VIII.  PAGK 

Ballasting  Track, .117 

CHAPTER   IX. 
Cross  Sleepers, 122 

CHAPTER  X. 
Chairs  and  Spikes, 128 

CHAPTER  XI. 
Rails,     .        . .131 

CHAPTER  XII. 
Station  Buildings, 148 

CHAPTER  XIII. 
Locomotives, 153 

CHAPTER   XIV. 
Coacnes  and  Cars, 177 

CHAPTER  XV. 
OPERATING — Introductory 203 

CHAPTER  XVI. 
Freight, ,206 

CHAPTER  XVII. 
Passengers, .    210 

CHAPTER  XVIII. 
Engine  Drivers, ,  221 

CHAPTER  XIX. 
Repairs  of  Track,  .        ....        .        .  .    225 


CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  XX.  PAOB 

Repairs  of  Machinery, 

CHAPTER  XXI. 

239 
Civil  Engineer, 

CHAPTER  XXII. 
Superintendent,  

CHAPTER  XXIII. 
Supplies  of  Material, 258 

CHAPTER  XXIV. 

263 
Receipts, 

CHAPTER  XXV. 
Disbursements, 266 

CHAPTER  XXVI. 
Statistics, 271 


CHAPTER  XXVII. 

CHAPTER  XXVIII. 

CHAPTER  XXIX. 


OH/T 

Running  Trains, 


291 
Competition, 


Financial  Management, 2" 

CHAPTER  XXX. 
General  Remarks, 32° 


RAILWAY     PROPERTY. 


INTRODUCTION. 

THE  vast  amount  of  funds  (about  one  thousand 
million  dollars)  invested  in  American  railways, 
claims  the  especial  attention  of  those  who  have 
furnished  the  means  for  their  construction.  Yast, 
indeed,  if  we  consider  the  infancy  of  our  coun- 
try, and  the  large  demands  for  capital,  indis- 
pensable for  other  purposes,  namely,  to  clear  the 
forests,  to  drain  and  fence  the  lands,  to  erect 
dwellings  for  the  people;  barns,  stables,  and 
sheds  for  the  storage  of  farm  products  and  shelter 
for  animals;  shops,  manufactories,  tools,  imple- 
ments, and  machinery  for  artisans  and  mechanics  ; 
and  for  wharves,  warehouses,  stores,  shops,  ship- 
ping and  other  appurtenances  of  commerce ;  all 
Which  must  be  provided  in  a  new  country  from  the 
surplus  beyond  what  is  necessary  to  supply  current 
wants. 

1* 


10  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

It  is  now  little  over  a  quarter  of  a  century  since 
railways  were  introduced  as  a  means  of  promoting 
the  general  intercourse  of  men.  The  opening 
of  the  Liverpool  and  Manchester  Railway,  com- 
pleted in  1830,  may  be  regarded  as  •  substantially 
inaugurating  this  improvement.  Previous  "to  this, 
something  had  been  done,  as  on  the  Stockton  and 
Darlington  Railway ;  but  the  wants  of  the  general 
traffic  in  passengers  and  freight  by  locomotive 
power,  were  not  fully  met  until  the  time  above 
stated.  The  success  that  attended  the  grand  expe- 
riment of  George  Stephenson,  Esq.,  Civil  Engineer, 
was  not  lost  on  the  mind  of  the  civilized  world, 
and  railway  improvement,  especially  in  England 
and  our  own  country,  was  pushed  forward  with  ex- 
traordinary zeal  and  energy.  So  far  as  a  beneficial 
result  was  anticipated,  in  advancing  the  commer- 
cial and  social  intercourse  of  men,  the  strongest 
hopes  have  been,  realized. 

It  is  not  regarded  as  important  at  this  time,  after 
so  much  has  been  demonstrated  by  practical  opera- 
tion, to  say  much  in  relation  to  the  usefulness  of 
railways.  It  may  be  well,  however,  to  call  atten- 
tion to  the  opinions  formed  at  a  period  when  the 
experience  of  men  could  see,  in  a  near  view,  the 
advantages  they  afforded  in  2ontrast  with  the 
means  of  communication  that  existed  before  they 


INTRODUCTION.  11 

were  known.  The  following  quotation,  from  the 
"  Westminster  Review,"  for  December,  1845,  arti- 
cle 7,  presents  in  vivid  language  the  view  enter- 
tained on  this  subject  in  England  at  that  time. 
"  Let  us  clearly  understand  our  position.  "We 
have  arrived  at  a  new  epoch  in  the  history  of  the 
world.  A  new  element  of  civilization  has  been 
developed.  As  was  the  invention  of  letters,  as  was 
the  printing-press,  so  is  the  railway  in  the  affairs 
of  mankind.  It  is  a  revolution  among  nations.  A 
moral  revolution  as  affecting  the  diffusion  of  know- 
ledge, the  interchange  of  social  relations,  the  per- 
petuation of  peace,  the  extension  of  commerce ;  and 
a  revolution  in  all  the  relations  of  property. 

"  We  refer,  by  the  latter  observation,  to  the 
cheapening  of  all  kinds  of  commodities  by  the 
facilities  of  carriage  and  the  saving  of  time  on  the 
part  of  producers,  afforded  by  railways,  and  espe- 
cially to  the  influence  of  railway  upon  the  value 
of  houses  and  lands  .  .  .  hence  the  demand  for 
railways  to  connect  every  town  of  the  United 
Kingdom  .  .  .  is  a  real  bona  fide  want  of 
society,  which  sooner  or  later  must  be  sup- 
plied." This  view,  presented  in  1845,  has  lost 
none  of  its  force  by  subsequent  experience.  No 
reflecting  mind,  intelligent  enough  to  contrast 
the  condition  of  the  world  before  and  since 

1* 


12  RAILWAY   PKOPEETY. 

the  introduction  of  railways,  can  fail  to  see  the 
force  of  the  language  held  by  the  "  Keview."  If 
attention  be  given  to  particulars,  it  will  only  show 
its  general  conclusions  to  have  been  founded  on  the 
most  practical  developments  of  the  improvement. 

"  The  diminished  cost  of  transport  invariably 
augments  the  amount  of  commerce  transacted,  and 
in  a  much  larger  ratio  than  the  reduction  of  cost ; 
so  that,  in  fact,  although  a  less  amount  of  labor  is 
employed  in  the  transport  of  a  given  amount  of 
commodities  than  before,  a  much  larger  quantity 
of  labor  is  necessary,  by  reason  of  the  vast  increase 
of  commodities  transmitted.  The  history  of  the 
arts  supplies  innumerable  examples  of  this.  .  .  . 
The  moment  the  first  great  line  of  railway  was 
brought  into  operation  between  Liverpool  and 
Manchester,  the  traffic  between  those  places  was 
quadrupled.  .  .  .  Improvements  in  transport  which 
augment  the  speed,  without  injuriously  increasing 
the  expense  or  diminishing  the  safety,  are  attended 
with  effects  similar  to  those  which  follow  cheapness. 
.  .  .  Numerous  classes  of  articles  of  production  be- 
come deteriorated  by  time,  .  .  .  admit  of  transport 
only  when  they  can  reach  the  consumer  ...  in  a 
sound  state,  ...  as  various  articles  of  food ;  .  .  . 
animals  of  every  species  driven  to  market  on  com- 
mon roads,  were  proved  to  suffer  so  much  from  the 


INTRODUCTION.  13 

fatigue  of  the  journey,  that  when  they  arrived  at 
market  their  flesh  was  not  in  a  wholesome  state ; 
.  .  .  sheep  frequently  had  their  feet  literally  worn 
off,  and  were  obliged  to  be  sold  on  the  road  for 
what  they  would  fetch.  Extensive  graziers  de- 
clared that,  in  such  cases,  they  would  be  gainers  by 
a  safe  and  expeditious  transport  for  the  animals, 
even  though  it  cost  double  the  price  paid  by  the 
drovers."  (Lardner,  on  the  Economy  of  Eailways, 
pages  7,  8  and  9.  London  :  1850.) 

In  little  over  a  quarter  of  a  century — 1826  to 
1858 — there  were  constructed  and  put  in  operation 
in  Great  Britain  about  9,000  miles  of  railway,  at  a 
cost  of  say  fifteen  hundred  million  dollars.  A.  high 
confirmation  of  the  opinions  and  statements  above 
quoted. 

"  At  the  present  time  nearly  9,000  miles  of  rail- 
ways have  been  completed  in  the  British  Isles.  .  .  . 
It  appears  from  the  published  returns  of  traffic  upon 
railways  for  the  year  1856,  that  129,315,196  persons 
travelled  1,822,049,476  miles,  and  paid  nearly 
£11,000,000  in  fares;  10,450,625  cattle,  sheep  and 
pigs,  .  .  .  23,823,930  tons  of  merchandise,  .  .  . 
"  and  40,938,575  tons  of  minerals  were  carried. 
The  total  receipts  on  the  railways  for  the  year 
amounted  to  £23,165,493."  (See  "  Edinburgh  Re- 
view "  for  April,  1858,  Article  4.) 


14  RAILWAY   PROPERTY. 

Compared  with  the  previous  history  of  works  and 
improvements  in  the  means  to  facilitate  the  com- 
mercial, political  and  social  intercourse  of  mankind, 
the  railway  truly  marks  an  "  epoch."  The  superfi- 
cial area  of  country  on  which  the  larger  expenditure 
above  quoted  has  been  made,  is  121,000  square 
miles ;  but  little  larger  than  the  area  of  the  States 
of  'New  York  and  Virginia ;  and  three-fourths  of 
these  roads  are  in  England  on  an  area  of  about 
60,000  square  miles,  and  afford  nearly  a  mile  of 
railway  to  ten  square  miles  of  territory.  Most  of 
the  British  railways  have  a  double  track;  single 
track  railways  occur  only  as  rare  exceptions. 

The  foregoing  is  a  sketch  of  what  has  been  done, 
and  of  the  views  entertained  on  the  subject  of  rail- 
ways in  Great  Britain.  And  here  it  must  be  ob- 
served, the  country  is  surrounded  by  coast  naviga- 
tion that  has  always  been  extensively  employed  for 
the  transport  of  .persons  and  property — the  interior 
provided  with  near  3,000  miles  of  canal  navigation, 
and  27,000  miles  of  McAdainized  turnpike  roads, 
of  the  best  quality.* 

If  railways  have  produced  so  great  results  in  a 
country  like  England,  largely  provided  with  the 
best  means  of  transport  known  previous  to  their 

*  See  "  Westminster  Review,"  December,  1845,  Article  7. 


INTRODUCTION.  15 

introduction,  how  vast  must  be  their  beneficial 
influence  on  a  country  like  our  own  !  The  United 
States  has  many  advantages  of  coast,  lake  and 
river  navigation,  and  a  considerable  extent  of  canal 
navigation.  In  many  of  these,  there  are  frequent 
interruptions  from  drought,  and  all  in  the  higher 
latitudes  are,  during  a  portion  of  the  year,  locked 
up  by  frost.  At  best,  they  leave  broad  districts  of 
country  between  them,  that  have  no  other  means  of 
transport  than  earth  roads,  depending  mainly  for 
their  quality  on  the  character  of  the  natural  soil  on 
which  they  are  located;  which  are  at  all  times 
inferior,  and  often  unfit  for  the  transport  of  even 
moderate  loads.  ~No  such  thing  as  rapid  travelling 
could  be  expected,  and  the  stage-coach  passenger 
must  be  content  to  jog  on  at  the  rate  of  two  to  five 
miles  per  hour,  according  to  the  dry  or  wet  season. 
This  was  peculiarly  the  condition  of  transport  over 
the  deep  loamy  soils  of  the  western  States.  At 
this  day  the  memory  of  many  men  will  call  to  mind 
the  hardships  of  a  winter  journey  between  "Now 
York  and  Albany,  previous  to  the  introduction  of 
railways.  I  have  a  vivid  recollection  of  several 
such  journeys,  and  of  one  in  particular,  that  occu- 
pied two  successive  nights,  and  parts  of  three  days' 
continuous  journeying.  ISTow  the  jaunt  is  made 
in  five  hours,  with  nothing  worthy  the  name 


16  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

of  fatigue,  and  at  comparatively  trifling  expense. 
A  journey  from  the  seaboard  across  the  mountains 
to  the  western  States,  was  only  encountered  by  the 
vigorous  and  hardy,  and  by  them  only  on  high  in- 
ducements, that  would  justify  the  time,  expense 
and  fatigue  involved  in  such  an  undertaking.  To 
the  invalid,  there  was  little  prospect  of  even  mode- 
rate journeyings.  As  an  illustration  of  this,  I  refer 
to  an  instance  in  my  own  experience.  In  March, 
1836,  it  became  important  for  me  to  make  a  jour- 
ney from  Albany  to  Rome,  in  the  State  of  New 
York,  with  an  invalid  wife,  who  was  too  feeble  to 
bear  stage  travelling.  At  that  time,  the  railway  was 
opened  from  Albany  to  Schenectady  (16  miles), 
and  so  far  I  had  its  benefit.  It  required  four  days 
to  reach  Utica  (96  miles),  at  an  expense  of  over 
$50  for  four  persons.  At  this  day,  such  a  journey 
could  be  performed  in  four  hours,  at  an  expense  of 
$8.  On  another  occasion,  an  invalid  friend,  too 
feeble  to  walk  a  dozen  paces,  was  put  into  the  rail- 
way coach  at  Rome,  New  York,  and  in  nine  hours 
made  the  journey  to  New  York  city,  250  miles, 
without  suffering  inconvenient  fatigue.  Doubtless, 
many  instances  might  be  added,  to  show  the  bene- 
ficent influence  of  railways,  in  promoting  the 
comfort  and  convenience  of  the  aged  and  in- 
firm. 


INTRODUCTION.  17 

By  the  old  system  of  stage-coach  travelling,  the 
average  distance  travelled  in  24  hours  cannot  be 
placed  higher  than  100  miles ;  the  expense  of  fare, 
$5,  other  expenses,  $1  50,  total  $6  50.  A  journey 
of  500  miles  would  require  five  days,  and  an  ex- 
pense of  $32  50.  By  railway,  the  journey  would 
require  one  day,  or,  24  hours,  at  an  expense  not 
often  exceeding  $15  (in  some  cases  not  exceeding 
$11),  thus  saving  $17  50  in  expense  and  four  days 
in  time  on  a  journey  of  500  miles.  On  some  routes 
the  contrast  is  greater,  both  in  time  and  expense. 
Within  two  years,  I  was  travelling  on  the  railway 
between  Buifalo  and  Cleveland,  and  while  the  train 
stopped  at  a  station,  I  heard  two  young  gentle- 
men in  discussion,  complain  sharply  at  the  slowness 
of  our  progress ;  I  inquired  what  speed  they  sup- 
posed we  were  making,  to  which  they  replied 
they  did  not  know ;  I  said,  we  appeared  to  be  on 
time,  and  that  would  give  us  about  eight  hours 
from  Buffalo  to  Cleveland,  and  contrasting  this 
with  experience  I  had  had  on  the  same  route  before 
the  railway  was  in  operation,  and  at  about  the 
same  season  of  the  year  (winter),  when  it  had  occu- 
pied four  days  of  very  dilligent  travelling  to 
accomplish  the  same  journey,  our  progress  on  the 
railway  appeared  very  satisfactory.  The  compara- 
tive *,ime  of  the  railway  was  about  one-tenth.  This 


18  RAILWAY   PROPERTY. 

incident  is  mentioned  for  the  benefit  of  those  whose 
experience  does  not  enable  them  to  appreciate,  by 
comparison,  the  change  the  railway  has  wrought  in 
the  means  of  easy  and  expeditious  transport. 

American  industry,  in  agriculture,  commerce, 
and  manufactures,  has  received  an  impulse  from 
railways,  that  has  carried  them  beyond  the  most 
sanguine  anticipations,  greatly  advancing  "  the 
value  of  houses  and  lands."  The  saving  in  time, 
expense,  and  fatigue  of  travelling  has  increased 
personal  intercourse,  it  is  believed,  more  than  ten- 
fold. This  is  manifest  in  the  vast  number  of  short 
journeys;  and  those  of  100  to  1,000  miles  are  now 
undertaken  with  comparatively  little  thought,  not 
certainly  more  than  would  have  been  given  under 
the  old  system  of  travelling  for  journeys  one-fifth 
as  long.  Consequently,  our  political,  commercial, 
and  social  intercourse  has  been  greatly  extended. 
In  the  interior  districts,  and  especially  in  the  west- 
ern States,  their  influence  on  agriculture  has  been 
most  obvious.  Farm  products  have  advanced  in 
value  from  20  to  over  100  per  cent.,  and  this  range 
will  hold  good  for  a  large  portion  of  our  territory. 

By  opening  and  enlarging  the  facilities  of  inter- 
course— giving  increased  value  to  the  products  of 
labor — introducing  articles  of  necessity  and  com- 
fort, and  the  means  of  intellectual  and  moral  cul- 


IN  TKODUCTION .  1 9 

tare,  it  has  made  much  of  our  country,  that  was 
before  secluded,  pleasant  and  desirable  for  places 
of  abode ;  thereby  greatly  promoting  civilization. 

~No  great  effort  of  mind  is  necessary  to  see  in  the 
railway,  a  vast  labor-saving  machine,  diffusing  its 
benefits  to  all  classes  and  conditions  of  men ; 
increasing  the  value  of  each  of  their  own  products, 
and  cheapening  the  cost  of  articles  of  necessity 
and  comfort  obtained  from  distant  places. 

Those  who  desire  to  examine  particulars  of  the 
history  of  intercommunication,  and  the  contrast 
between  the  facilities  that  existed  prior  and  subse- 
quent to  the  introduction  of  railways,  are  referred 
to  "  Lardner's  Economy  of  Railways,"  London, 
1850,  where  they  may  find  much  that  is  interesting 
on  this  subject. 

By  the  last  report  of  the  postmaster-general,  it 
appears  that  the  United  States  mail  was  transported 
in  June  last  (1858),  over  24,431  miles  of  railway. 
Doubtless,  there  was  some  railway  opened  at  that 
date  on  which  the  mail  was  not  carried,  and  some 
opened  subsequently  before  the  close  of  that  year, 
making  an  aggregate  of  26,000  miles  of  railway 
in  this  country  in  operation  at  the  close  of  1858. 
The  total  cost  may  be  set  down  approximately  at 
one  thousand  millions  of  dollars.  Hunt's  "  Mer- 
chants' Magazine,"  for  September,  1858,  states  the 


RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 


gross  receipts  for  1857  at  $98,949,600,  and  for  1858 
(which  must  have  been  partially  estimated),  at 
.  $106,013,600,  and  the  net  income  for  1858  at 
$44,589,400 ;  equal  say  4|  per  cent. 

The  extent  of  superficial  area  of  that  portion  of 
the  United  States  over  which  the  railways  have 
mostly  been  made,  does  not  exceed  one  million  of 
square  miles.  This  shows  one  mile  of  railway  to 
38£  square  miles  of  territory. 

The  following  table  shows  a  comparison  of  the 
general  features  of  the  railway  enterprise  in  this 
country  and  great  Britain. 


Length  In 

Miles. 

Sq.  Miles  of 
Territory. 

Aggregate 

Sq.  Miles  of 
Territory 
to  one  mile 
Rail. 

Gross  rec'pte 
per  Annum. 

Great  Britain  . 

9,000 

121,000 

$1,500,000,000 

13  % 

$112,584,286 

United  States  .  . 

26,000 

1,000,000 

1,000,000,000 

88^ 

106,013,600 

It  appears  that  with  a  trifle  over  three  times  the 
territory  per  mile  of  railway,  the  earnings  per  mile 
are  about  one-third  in  the  United  States,  what  they 
are  in  Great  Britain.  The  earnings  on  capital 
expended  for  construction  in  the  United  States  are 
about  41  per  cent,  greater  than  the  earnings  on 
capital  expended  for  construction  in  Great  Britain 
If  the  latter  had  only  expended  on  9,000  miles 
what  the  former  have  expended  on  26,000  miles 


INTRODUCTION.  21 

the  British  investment  would  have  been  satisfactory 
as  to  income. 

The  total  area  of  the  United  States  territory  is 
probably  double  that  given  above ;  but  as  one-half 
may  be  considered  either  very  thinly  inhabited  or 
an  uncultivated  wilderness,  to  which  railways  have 
never  been  extended,  there  is  no  reason  to  include 
it  in  this  comparison.  The  population  of  the  two 
countries,  at  this  time,  is  not  probably  very  differ- 
ent, and  the  gross  earnings  compare  very  well  in 
this  respect.  The  British  railways  are  mostly 
double  track,  while  those  of  the  United  States  are 
mostly  single  track. 

As  population  and  business  increase,  and  more 
railways  are  wanted  in  the  United  States,  it  will,  to 
a  great  extent,  be  accommodated  by  making  double 
tracks  on  existing  roads,  at  about  one-third  the  cost 
of  the  first  track.  We  cannot  expect  so  dense  a 
population  .  as  that  of  Britain,  at  least  for  many 
years;  but  it  will  rapidly  increase  and  become 
much  more  dense  than  it  now  is,  and  this  will 
increase  traffic.  There  are  thousands  of  miles  of 
railways  in  the  western  States,  that  traverse  dis- 
tricts not  more  than  one-sixth  to  one-half  occupied, 
an  encouraging  circumstance  for  such  as  are  strug- 
gling with  inadequate  traffic;  as  time,  with  good 
management,  is  sure  to  improve  their  income, 


22  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

unless  rival  lines  are  constructed  to  interfere  with 
them,  as  the  growth  of  the  country  proceeds.  On 
this  point,  however,  it  is  to  be  considered,  that 
as  population  and  business  increase,  the  demand 
for  further  railway  facilities  will  stimulate  the 
construction  of  new  lines,  and  to  a  greater  or  less 
.extent,  according  to  circumstances,  they  will  pre- 
vent this  benefit  from  flowing  to  the  old  lines.  It 
is  not  probable  that  capital  will  seek  railways, 
merely  as  an  investment  of  funds,  for  some  time  to 
come;  but  the  railway  has  become  so  much  a 
necessity,  that  local  interests  will  make  great  efforts 
to  do  what  capitalists  hitherto  have  been  willing  to 
do  for  them.  The  local  interest,  when  it  becomes 
strong  enough  to  act,  will  not  be  so  much  con- 
trolled by  the  expectation  of  dividends  as  by  the 
rise  in  the  value  of  their  "  houses  and  lands,"  and 
the  general  promotion  of  their  business  interests. 

Men  readily  become  habituated  to  look  with 
indifference  on  the  most  important  improvements, 
and  this  great  work  of  art,  so  eminently  influencing 
all  the  affairs  of  life>  has  already  come  to  be  viewed 
as  a  familiar,  if  not  an  ordinary  medium  of  every- 
day business.  In  our  devotion  to  the  onward  pur- 
suits of  life,  we  are  prone  to  seize  the  present  and 
almost  the  future,  but  rarely  indulge  in  the  retro- 
spective, or  stop  to  consider  the  element  that  so 


INTRODUCTION.  23 

materially  aids  us  in  our  onward  career.  Tims,  in 
a  measure,  we  limit  and  restrict  the  horizon  of  our 
view,  and  deprive  ourselves  of  the  benefit  and 
enjoyment  of  contemplating  the  history  and  pro- 
gress of  those  useful  arts  that  have  been  greatly 
instrumental  in  the  promotion  of  our  material  well- 
being,  and  of  our  progress  in  intellectual  and  moral 
civilization;  and  it  should  not  be  forgotten,  that 
the  railway  is  "  an  epoch  in  the  affairs  of  mankind." 
The  expenditure  for  this  great  improvement  has 
been  large,  and  in  England  and  this  country  has 
been  almost  wholly  contributed  from  private 
sources.  The  country  at  large  has  received  bene- 
fits that  in  many  districts  have  doubled  and  in 
others  quadrupled  the  cost  of  the  railway,  in  the 
increased  value  of  property.  Notwithstanding  the 
vast  benefit  conferred  on  the  public,  the  average 
net  income  to  the  proprietors  has  fallen  far  short 
of  the  remuneration  to  which  such  outlays  are 
entitled.  The  net  income  has  not  been  uniform — 
in  some  cases  it  has  been  fair,  and  even  liberal — in 
a  more  numerous  class  it  has  been  moderate,  and 
to  a  large  number  of  stockholders  the  property  has 
become,  or  seems  likely  to  become,  a  total  loss. 
This  is  certainly  a  hardship  for  men  whose  funds 
mostly  contributed  to  the  construction  of  works 
that  have  been  so  beneficial  to  the  public.  The 


24  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

hardship  is  more  intense  when  the  fact  is  consi- 
dered, that  these  funds  have,  to  a  large  extent,  been 
furnished  by  persons  in  moderate  circumstances, 
by  widows  and  orphans,  and  by  the  aged  and 
infirm,  who  have  been  induced  by  shrewd  stock- 
dealers  to  invest  their  small  properties  in  railway 
securities,  under  the  most  plausible  assurance  that 
they  were  perfectly  safe  and  would  produce  a  libe- 
ral income.  To  some  extent,  these  representations 
were,  no  doubt,  honestly  made ;  but  this  charity 
can  by  no  means  be  extended  to  the  whole.  In 
some  instances  the  proprietors  have  realized  their 
expectations.  Railways  that  have  had  a  fair  basis 
of  business,  and  have  been  conducted  with  fair 
capacity  and  fidelity,  have  returned  to  the  proprie- 
tary interest  a  fair,  and  in  some  instances  even  a 
liberal  remuneration  for  their  investment.  And 
instances  are  not  wanting,  where  lines,  regarded 
in  the  outset  as  offering  very  slender  prospects 
of  remuneration,  have,  by  the  care,  skill,  and 
fidelity  of  the  management,  proved  to  the  proprie- 
tors a  source  of  steady  and  reasonable  income ; 
while  incapacity  and  dishonesty  have  rendered 
unproductive,  railways  that  should  have  been,  from 
the  liberal  traffic  they  commanded,  among  the  best 
paying  institutions  of  the  country. 

The  celebrated  roads  of  antiquity  were  made  for 


INTRODUCTION.  25 

military  purposes — they  were  little  demanded,  and 
.little  used  for  commercial  intercourse.  The  rail- 
way was  a  demand  of  civilization,  and  consequently 
lias  been  appreciated  according  to  the  progress  in 
this  respect  of  different  people.  It  is  an  improve- 
ment that  in  an  eminent  degree  has  commended 
Itself  to  the  wants,  the  interests,  and  the  happiness 
of  men.  It  was  ushered  suddenly  into  notice,  and 
extended  with  unprecedented  rapidity.  It  opened 
a  new  field  for  the  exercise  of  mechanical  inge- 
nuity and  the  researches  of  science,  demanding  in- 
vestigations and  modifications  to  meet  its  numerous 
and  hitherto  little  known  requirements.  Though 
the  railway  had  been  in  operation  more  than  a 
century,  it  had  been  confined  to  short  lines,  mostly 
in  mining  districts,  propelled  by  horse-power  and  a 
•few  locomotive  steam  engines,  with  sundry  in- 
efficient means  of  traction,  the  most  effective  of 
which  was  the  cog-wheel,  working  in  a  rack.  In 
this  condition  it  was  unable  to  meet  the  wants  of 
genera]  commerce,  and  the  labors  of  several  engi- 
neers were  engaged  for  years  to  ascertain  some 
more  efficient  means  of  applying  steam  locomotive 
power  for  propulsion. 

The  attention  of  the  late  Mr.  Nicholas  Wood  was 
directed,  for  several  years,  to  ascertaining  how  far 
the  adhesion  of  the  wheel  to  the  rail  could  be  relied 


26  RAILWAY   PROPERTY. 

on  for  this  purpose;  and  the  world  is  much  in- 
debted to  his  investigations  and  experiments. 
From  the  imperfection,  and  want  of  adaptation  of 
machinery,  his  results  were  slow ;  but  they  served 
to  direct  attention,  and  inspire  confidence  that  this 
was  the  best  means  that  had  been  proposed,  and 
the  practical  result  on  the  Stockton  and  Darlington 
Railway  greatly  strengthened  this  confidence,  and 
with  it  the  idea,  that  the  railway  would  become  an 
important  medium  of  general  commercial  inter- 
course. The  opening  of  the  Liverpool  and  Man- 
chester Eailway  confirmed  the  principle  of  adhe- 
sion, and  even  Mr.  George  Stephenson  found  he 
could  depend  on  this  as  a  substitute  for  stationary 
power  on  his  inclined  planes,  having  a  rise  of  a  100 
feet  per  mile.  Thus,  after  slowly  groping  its  way 
for  years,  it  was  discovered  that  steam  locomotive 
power,  by  this  simple  means  of  adhesion,  would  be 
effectually  and  economically  used  for  the  propul- 
sion of  carriages  on  railways.  The  result  is  a 
striking  instance  of  the  time  and  labor  often  re- 
quired to  demonstrate  and  bring  into  use  improve- 
ments of  great  public  utility,  depending  on  so  simple 
a  method  of  action,  that  we  wonder  how  it  could 
so  long  remain  undeveloped. 

It  now  remained  to  consider  and  devise  the  best 
mechanism  for  the  railway,  and  the  various  appur- 


INTRODUCTION.  27 

tenances  required  for  its  complete  operation.  "Very 
little  engineering  experience  on  this  subject  existed 
at  that  time,  nor  were  the  general  characteristic 
wants  of  the  improvement  appreciated,  or  how  the 
material  and  works  of  the  varied  mechanisms  re- 
quired, would  successfully  answer  the  almost  un- 
known service  they  were  expected  to  perform.  It 
is  therefore  no  matter  of  surprise,  that  many  errors 
were  committed — that  numerous  suggestions  of 
plan  and  improvement  were  found  inapplicable, 
and  by  degrees,  as  experience  demonstrated  their 
futility,  were  laid  aside.  In  our  own  country  these 
have  been  numerous,  and  even  in  England  it  can- 
not now  be  said,  they  have  arrived  at  perfection, 
or  uniformity  in  the  machinery  or  management 
of  railways.  Though  they  have  undergone  import- 
ant changes,  their  engineers  are  still  divided  in 
practice  on  important  features. 

We  have  had  a  railway  gravely  urged  on  the 
pannier,  or  single  rail  plan,  with  the  load  suspended 
on  each  side ;  and  this  especially  commended  for 
timber  districts,  where  it  was  proposed  to  cut  oif 
trees  at  a  suitable  height,  and  lay  the  rails  from 
stump  to  stump  as  supports  for  the  rail.  Singular 
as  this  now  appears,  I  knew  a  board  of  directors  to 
go  to  the  expense  of  fitting  up  a  piece  of  railway 
and  a  pair  of  pannier  cars  to  try  the  experiment  of 


28  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

its  working,  and  their  engineer  had  no  small  diffi- 
culty in  persuading  them  to  abandon  the  plan.  The 
construction  of  an  important  railway  in  this  country 
was  commenced,  and  a  section  laid  and  put  in 
operation,  with  the  flanges  of  the  carriage-wheels 
on  the  outside  of  the  rails.  Locomotive  engines 
were  made  with  joints  in  their  machinery,  so  as  to 
be  borne  by  two  wagons,  or  trucks,  connected 
together  by  a  movable  joint,  so  that  each  truck 
would  take  its  own  line  on  the  rail,  while  the  ma- 
chinery of  the  engine  would  move  on  the  curved 
rail,  by  means  of  its  movable  joints.  The  anti- 
friction car  was  introduced  at  an  early  day,  and  for 
a  time  was,  with  many,  a  great  favorite.  All 
these  were  presented  by  men  of  talent,  who  had 
given  much  attention  to  the  subject.  The  atmos- 
pheric railway  had,  at  one  time,  a  great  run  of  po- 
pularity— was  advocated  by  distinguished  engi- 
neers, and  several  railways  were  constructed  in 
England  on  this  plan.  These  instances  are  men- 
tioned as  reminiscences,  not  having  on  trial  met 
the  requirements  of  railways.  Others  might  be 
mentioned,  but  these  are  sufficient  to  show,  that 
although  the  great  principle  of  its  successful  opera- 
tion had  been  established,  the  wants  of  its  varied 
mechanism  were  but  imperfectly  developed. 

The  history  of  railways  has  proved  that  serious 


INTRODUCTION.  29 

errors  originally  existed  in  regard  to  the  durability 
of  rails  and  rolling  stock.  The  iron  rails  were  for- 
merly regarded  as  highly  indestructible,  and  the 
wear  being  supposed  to  be  very  slight,  would 
answer  the  service  a  great  number  of  years.  The 
machinery,  in  great  part  of  the  same  material,  it 
was  thought  would  be  very  little  subject  to  repairs 
or  renewal.  For  a  time,  the  unexpected  deteriora- 
tion of  rails  was  attributed  to  light  weight ;  and 
this  was  increased  until  the  rails  were  generally 
made  double,  and  in  some  instances  about  three 
times  the  weight  of  the  original  rails  on  the  Liver- 
pool and  Manchester  Railway.  At  the  present  time, 
the  tendency  is  to  fall  back  to  a  less  weight,  as  best 
calculated  to  secure  a  good  article,  and  conse- 
quently a  higher  durability.  The  engines  and  cars 
have  required  large  repairs,  and  more  frequent  re- 
newals, and  consequently  the  expense  for  repairs 
and  maintenance  of  stock  has  been  materially 
greater  than  anticipated  in  the  early  history  of  rail- 
ways. This,  error,  no  doubt,  has  arisen,  in  a  great 
measure,  from  the  failure  to  appreciate  the  severity 
of  the  service  to  which  they  have  been  exposed. 

In  the  early  operations  of  railways,  the  locomo- 
tive engines  weighed  from  six  to  ten  tons,  carrying 
from  one  and  a-half  to  two  tons  on  a  wheel ;  the 
weight  has  been  increased  to  four  and  five  tons  or 


30  RAILWAY   PROPERTY. 

a  wheel.  The  weight  of  cars  was  from  three-quar- 
ters to  one  and  a  quarter  tons  on  a  wheel,  which  has 
been  increased  to  two  and  two  and  a  half  tons  on  a 
wheel.  The  early  speed  of  passenger-trains  was 
from  sixteen  to  twenty  miles  per  hour— it  has  been 
raised  to  thirty  miles  and  over  per  hour,  and  a  run- 
ning speed  of  forty-five  to  fifty  miles  per  hour  has 
been  not  urifrequently  made.  Some  may  have  an- 
ticipated this  speed,  but  not  its  effect  on  the  rails 
and  machinery.  When  Mr.  George  Stephenson 
was  interrogated  by  the  opposing  counsel  before  a 
committee  of  Parliament,  he  claimed  that  his  en- 
gine could  run  ten  miles  per  hour.  With  a  view 
to  lead  him  into  some  extravagance,  he  was  asked 
if  u  he  did  not  think  his  iron  horse  could  run 
fifteen  or  twenty,  or  even  twenty-five  miles  per 
hour."  To  which  Mr.  Stephenson,  forgetting  the 
caution  that  had  been  given  him,  modestly  replied, 
that  he  thought  it  could ;  an  indiscretion,  that  at 
that  time  was  regarded  so  extravagant,  as  nearly  to 
disconcert  the  applicants  for  the  railway  bill  then 
pending  before  the  parliamentary  committee. 

Since  the  time  above  referred  to,  there  has  been 
great  demand  for  increased  epeecj;  and  this  in- 
fluence has  led  to  the  necessity  of  more  powerful 
engines,  and,  consequently,  to  greater  weight.  In- 
stead of  six  to  ten  tons,  their  general  range  has  of 


INTRODUCTION.  31 

late  been  22  to  28  tons,  and  some  even  greater. 
These  weights  are  exclusive  of  tender.  The  running 
speed  has  gone  up,  as  before  stated,  to  50  miles  per 
hour,  and  a  large  proportion  of  trains  now  range  on 
their  running  time  from  30  to  40  miles  per  hour. 
It  has  been  contended  by  many  that  high  speed 
was  but  little  more  expensive  than  low  speed — a 
very  superficial  error.  It  has  also  been  urged  by 
high  engineering  authority,  that  the  safety  of 
travelling  at  30  miles  per  hour  was  no  greater 
than  at  100  miles  per  hour ;  an  equally  superficial 
and  inconsiderate  error.  Whatever  may  be  the 
importance  of  high  speed,  it  can  only  be  obtained 
at  a  corresponding  sacrifice  of  expense  and  safety. 
No  intelligent  mechanic  can  witness  the  passage  of 
a  heavy  express  train,  as  it  thunders  past  him  at 
a  speed  of  45  to  50  miles  per  hour,  without  at  least 
a  momentary  wonder  that  the  materials  can  possi- 
bly sustain  the  rapid  action  of  the  parts  required 
under  such  motion.  This  branch  of  the  subject 
will  be  more  particularly  discussed  hereafter  ;  it  is 
now  alluded  to  for  the  purpose  of  showing  that  the 
progressive  demands  of  railway  service  have  called 
for  machinery  and  repairs  not  originally  antici- 
pated ;  and,  hence,  much  of  the  original  error  was 
a  mere  want  of  foresight  in  providing  for  the 
increasing  demands  that  have  been  made  for  rail 


32  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

way  accommodation.  This  cannot  be  regarded  as 
surprising,  when  we  consider  the  extraordinary 
revolution  the  railway  has  wrought  in  regard  to 
rapid  transport. 

It  has  been  stated  that  the  railways  of  this  coun- 
try have  cost,  in  round  numbers,  $1,000,000,000. 
This  is  not  far  from  ten  per  cent,  of  the  real  and 
personal  property  of  the  United  States,  as  esti- 
mated for  taxation  in  the  year  1856,  and  about 
double  the  outlay  of  Great  Britain,  in  proportion 
to  the  wealth  of  the  two  countries ;  the  former 
being  estimated  at  $11,000,000,000,  and  the  latter 
at  $30,000,000,000.  Ten  per  cent,  of  the  aggregate 
wealth  of  a  country,  and  especially  a  new  country, 
is  a  large  appropriation  for  a  single  means  of  trans- 
port, and  that  one  of  a  comparatively  modern 
kind,  that  the  world  scarcely  knew  of  thirty  years 
ago. 

It  is  not  regarded  as  worth  while  to  set  forth  in 
these  pages  the  particulars  of  the  progress  and 
working  of  railways,  the  large  expenditure  called 
forth  by  them,  and  the  business  results  that  have 
attended  their  unprecedented  advancement.  More 
full  particulars  in  regard  to  these  may  be  obtained 
from  other  works  already  before  the  public.  Hav- 
ing given  the  general  features  to  show  the  difficul- 
ties— the  vast  interest  of  the  public — and  the  large 


INTRODUCTION.  33 

outlay  of  private  funds,  I  proceed  to  examine  the 
circumstances  of  business  and  the  prospect  the  pro- 
prietary interest  has  to  obtain  a  fair  return  for  the 
funds  appropriated  for  the  promotion  of  works  so 
eminently  advantageous  to  the  public. 


34  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 


CHAPTEK  i, 

CONSTRUCTION. 

THIS  branch  will  be  discussed  under  the  several 
heads  that  constitute  the  sources  of  expenditure. 

The  first  object  for  consideration  in  examining  a 
project  for  a  railway,  is  the  nature  and  extent  of 
the  traffic  to  be  provided  for.  If  this  is  large  and 
of  a  character  to  demand  high  speed,  the  work 
must  be  adapted  to  bear  the  contemplated  service. 
Bridges  and  rails  must  be  stronger  than  for  a 
lighter  traffic  and  lower  speed.  If  a  light  traffic, 
and  especially  with  a  lower  rate  of  speed,  is  antici- 
pated, much  may  be  saved  in  expense  of  construc- 
tion, and  also  in  the  expense  of  operating  the  rail- 
way, by  adapting  the  works  to  the  service  to  be 
performed.  A  careful  consideration  of  this  ques- 
tion will  have  much  to  do  with  the  value  of  the 
investment.  This  question  should  be  carefully 
examined  before  commencing  the  work,  not  only 
to  ascertain  the  nature  of  the  traffic,  but  its  pro- 
bable sufficiency  to  warrant  the  undertaking. 


LAND  AND   LAND    DAMAGES.  35 


CHAPTEE  II. 

LAND  AND  LAND  DAMAGES. 

To  a  large  extent,  railways  have  been  excessively 
burdened  in  expenses  and  charges  for  land.  This 
has  been  most  severe  in  the  older  districts  of  our 
country.  The  idea  that  a  man  should  not  be  com- 
pelled to  part  with  anything  he  owns,  unless  he  is 
paid  such  an  equivalent  as  he  may  consider  himself 
entitled  to,  has  had  great  influence  on  this  branch 
of  railway  expenditure.  The  principle  cannot  be 
controverted  so  far  as  it  applies  to  general  objects 
of  commercial  intercourse.  But  railways  cannot  be 
made  without  land,  and  the  land  they  require  must 
be  such  as  is  called  for  by  the  line  of  their  works ; 
and  they  necessarily  have  no  competition,  as  no 
other  land  will  answer  their  purpose.  A  town 
or  county  road  is  no  less  dependent  on  some  pro- 
cess of  valuation  by  disinterested  parties.  If  there 
were  no  proper  way  to  take  it,  except  on  the 
general  principle  of  private  purchase,  the  means 
of  intercourse,  not  only  by  railway,  but  also  by 
public  roads  and  canals,  would  be  greatly  em  bar- 


36  KA1LWAY    PROPERTY. 

rassed ;  and  these  indispensable  agents  of  civiliza 
tion  often  held  in  abeyance,  if  not  totally  arrested. 
The  law  has  therefore  decided  that  legislative 
authority  may  prescribe  the  mode  of  determining 
the  value,  as  between  the  owner  and  the  railway 
corporation.  But  this  has  often  been  done  with 
so  jealous  a  regard  to  the  rights  of  the  owner,  that 
the  corporation  have  generally  regarded  it  for  their 
interest  not  to  resort  to  it  if  they  could  agree 
with  the  owner  for  double  or  treble  the  real  value ; 
preferring  this  to  the  risk  of  the  legal  method  of. 
appraisal.  The  determination  of  this  question  by  a 
jury  of  twelve  men,  as  has  often  been  the  provision 
of  the  statute,  is  the  most  objectionable  method, 
especially  if  a  jury  is  to  be  called  for  each  particu- 
lar case.  In  such  cases  juries  are  very  likely  to 
enter  into  sympathy  with  the  owner,  and  to  have 
very  little  for  what  they  consider  a  rich  corpora- 
tion ;  and  moreover  the  idea  of  a  return  in  kind, 
from  the  owner,  when  he  may  sit  as  a  juryman, 
may  have  an  influence  prejudicial  to  a  just  and 
equitable  valuation.  By  the  jury  process  I  have 
known  tenfold  damages  assessed,  and  the  corpora- 
tion left  with  no  alternative  to  escape  payment. 
The  most  just  and  equitable  mode  that  I  have 
fcnown,  is  by  commissioners  appointed  by  some 
-^ourt  of  high  standing,  which  select  men  of  char- 


LAND    AND    LAND    DAMAGES.  37 

acter  from  a  different  locality,  without  influence  or 
nomination  from  either  party.  Sometimes  the  par- 
ties claim  the  privilege  of  presenting  names  to  the 
court  as  candidates  from  which  a  selection  is  to 
be  made ;  but  any  court,  with  a  proper  sense  of  its 
duty  and  responsibility,  will  not  allow  this,  for  the 
obvious  reason  that  a  man  placed  on  a  commission 
of  appraisal  by  the  nomination  of  one  of  the  parties, 
is  most  likely,  if  not  certain,  to  lose  his  impar- 
tiality, in  favor  of  the  nominating  party.  The  court 
in  such  cases  should  take  the  entire  responsibilty, 
and  acquit  themselves  by  their  sound  judgment 
and  impartiality  in  selecting  men  for  commissioners 
whose  standing  will  be  a  guaranty  for  the  com- 
petent and  impartial  performance  of  their  duty. 

It  rarely  happens  that  a  landed  estate  is  not  more 
benefited  than  injured  by  a  railway  passing  through 
it.  The  exceptions  are  mostly  on  the  small  estates, 
or  building  lots,  and  the  disturbance  of  buildings, 
when  the  property  may  be  nearly  destroyed ;  and 
this  constitutes  but  a  very  limited  proportion  of  land 
required  for  such  purposes.  It  is  not  often  that  the 
appraisers  are  allowed  to  take  the  equitable  view  of 
offsetting  benefits  against  damages.  But  if  the  cor- 
poration could  obtain  the  land  at  its  fair  value,  the 
expense  would  not  generally  be  large,  or  seriously 
oppressive. 


38  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

Railway  corporations  were  formerly  made  up, 
mostly  from  the  more  enterprising  portion  of  the 
people,  who  were  willing  to  risk  something  for 
improvement,  and  it  is  certainly  a  hardship  for 
them  to  incur  the  hazard  of  the  enterprise  and  pay 
in  addition  large  amounts  in  the  shape  of  land 
damages  to  those  who  are  most  likely  to  secure  at 
least  an  indirect  benefit.  If  any  parties  are  sure  to 
reap  advantage  from  a  railway  enterprise,  it  is  those 
who  own  "  houses  and  lands"  on  the  route  ;  to  these 
the  railway  cannot  fail  to  give  increased  value. 
And  yet  it  is  this  class  that  often  impede  their 
progress  and  embarrass  their  finances.  It  is  curio  as, 
but  not  very  flattering,  to  see  the  developments  of 
humanity  in  its  manifestations  on  the  question  of 
land  damages,  especially  in  cases  where  it  is  obvious 
the  landowner  would  freely  give  his  land,  and 
something  more,  rather  than  have  the  railway  fail 
of  construction.  But  he  considers  the  question 
settled,  that  the  work  will  be  $one,  and  proceeds  to 
draw  from  the  treasury  of  the  corporation  what  he 
can,  thinking  that  a  clear  windfall  for  his  benefit. 
The  morality  of  such  proceeding  may  be  easily 
estimated. 

The  following  anecdote  illustrates  this  branch  of 
railway  business :  A  railway  corporation  being  in 
want  of  an  agent  to  procure  land  for  their  line. 


LAND    AND    LAND    DAMAGES.  6V 

employed  a  man  highly  esteemed  for  his  business 
capability.  He  was  a  stage  proprietor,  who  had 
made  his  way  from  the  stage-box  to  the  stage-coach 
office ;  and  having  had  much  experience  with  men, 
he  entered  on  his  duties  with  high  hopes  of  success. 
When,  however,  he  came  in  to  report  his  proceed- 
ings, he  did  not  appear  much  elated,  and  remarked 
that  he  thought  he  had  seen  human  nature  in  all 
its  forms  ;  but  he  had  come  to  the  conclusion  that 
if  a  man  desired  to  be  fully  acquainted  with  human 
nature,  he  must  be  an  agent  to  obtain  land  for  a 
railway. 

The  experience  of  the  stage  proprietor  was  not 
peculiar  among  land  agents  of  railway  corporations. 
One  owner  is  devoted  to  literature,  or  seeks  the 
quiet  and  retirement  of  seclusion,  and  the  sight  and 
noise  of  trains  will  damage  his  meditations  or 
repose ;  another,  for  the  want  of  a  more  substantial 
basis  of  damage,  brings  forward  proof  to  show  that 
the  natural  beauty  of  his  scenery  will  be  marred, 
and  the  poetry  of  his  place  destroyed  by  so  vulgar 
a  thing  as  a  railway,  and  a  professed  artist  gravely 
testifies  this  will  damage  his  property  twenty-five 
thousand  dollars ;  another  is  alarmed  for  the  fear  of 
losing  his  trade,  by  the  facilities  the  railway  will 
afford  distant  produce  to  compete  in  his  market,  or 
give  facilities  for  his  customers  to  supply  their  wants 


40  RAILWAY   PROPERTY. 

at  other  places.  Notwithstanding  these  varied  ap- 
prehensions, the  railway  does  not  fail  to  enlarge 
every  department  of  commerce  and  useful  industry, 
and  to  increase  the  "  value  of  houses  and  lands." 

The  hurried  manner  in  which  railways  have  gene- 
rally been  planned  and  prosecuted  has  very  much 
increased  the  item  of  land  damages.  If  a  discreet 
business-man  contemplated  the  construction  of  a 
railway  on  his  own  account,  he  would  begin  by 
ascertaining  the  proper  location,  and  then  by  con- 
ditional contracts  ascertain  what  the  land  would 
cost.  He  would  hold  the  decision,  not  only  as  to 
route,  but  also  as  to  the  main  question,  whether  he 
would  make  the  railway  at  all,  subject  to  cost  of 
land  and  other  expenses  indicated  by  preliminary 
surveys  and  estimates ;  and  if  these  appeared  too 
heavy  for  the  probable  income  and  other  benefit  he 
might  anticipate,  he  would  abandon  the  project. 
Under  this  kind  of  management  landholders  would 
look  on  the  project,  not  as  a  certainty,  but  depend- 
ing materially  on  cost  of  construction  and  prospect 
of  revenue,  to  be  decided,  not  by  an  association  of 
men,  among  whom  there  may  be  a  strong  interest 
for  the  railway,  without  regard  to  direct  profit,  but 
by  a  single  man  who  will  risk  the  expenditure,  only 
as  the  income  promises  to  be  remunerative.  The 
landowner  in  such  cases  realizes,  that  if  his  "  houses 


LAND    AND   LAND    DAMAGES.  41 

ana  Bands'-  are  to  be  increased  in  value  by  the  rail- 
way, he  must  be  careful  not  to  put  any  obstruction 
in  the  way,  and  he  will  generally  be  willing  to  take 
a  fair  price,  or  donate  his  land  so  far  as  required  for 
the  object,  and  if  it  appear  necessary,  do  something 
in  addition  to  insure  the  prosecution  of  the  enter- 
prise. 

If  a  joint-stock  company  should  adopt  a  similar 
policy,  and  only  call  in  a  small  amount  of  capital, 
sufficient  for  such  preliminary  proceedings,  and  hold 
the  enterprise  to  the  same  business  requirements, 
they  would  obtain  the  same  beneficial  results.  But 
it  often  happens,  while  many  individuals  subscribe 
their  money  to  a  railway  stock  merely  as  an  instru- 
ment, to  be  benefited  only  by  direct  income,  there 
are  others  that  subscribe  to  the  stock  and  interest 
themselves  mainly,  if  not  exclusively,  to  enhance  the 
value  of  their  "  houses  and  lands."  This  latter  class 
are  in  great  haste  to  have  the  railway  in  operation, 
as  that  is  the  result  to  benefit  them ;  and  whether 
it  is  providently  or  improvidently  constructed  is  not 
material  to  their  interest ;  but  they  are  essentially 
interested  in  a  rapid  prosecution  and  early  comple- 
tion of  the  railway.  To  them  it  is  of  small  moment 
whether  or  not  the  lands  are  obtained  at  a  large  or 
small  price,  provided  the  work  is  accomplished. 

On  the  item  of  land  damages,  and  law  and  legis- 


42  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

lative  expenses,  we  have  not  suffered  as  English 
railway  corporations  have  for  the  same  object  of 
expenditure.  In  a  work  recently  published  on 
"  European  railways,"  by  Colburn  and  Holley,  page 
33,  it  is  stated  that  the  average  of  British  railways 
have  expended  (for  railways  completed  prior  to 
1856)  for  these  items  $50,000  per  mile  of  railway  ; 
of  which  $43,000  per  mile  was  for  land  damages. 
Even  the  Hudson  River  Railway,  that  suffered 
severely  in  this  respect,  cannot  compete  by  a  long 
way  with  English  railways.  The  same  work,  page 
23,  says :  "  The  sums  paid  by  many  of  the  railway 
corporations  for  land  and  compensation  are  almost 

fabulous It  is  recorded  that  the  sum  paid  to 

one  particular  individual  was  so  preposterously  large 
that  his  heir  (?)  returned  the  greatest  portion  of  it 
as  conscience  money!  ....  Railway  corporations 
have,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  paid  from  ten  to  a 
hundredfold  beyond  the  legitimate  value  of  the 
properties  purchased  by  them.  ....  More  re- 
cently landowners  are  less  clamorous  for  compen- 
sation." It  is  indeed  difficult  to  get  clear  of  the 
idea  that  the  above  statements  are  quite  "  fabulous." 
Mr.  Robert  Stephenson,  from  whom  the  above 
writer  quotes,  says,  "  almost  fabulous."  Looking  at 
this  as  applicable  to  more  than  6,000  miles  of  rail- 
way, mostly  through  farming  lands,  and  a  greater 


LAND   AND   LAND   DAMAGES.  4.5 

or  less  proportion  of  the  land  of  little  real  value,  it 
certainly  cannot  be  regarded  as  complimentary  to 
the  intelligence  and  morality  of  the  British  nation. 
Perhaps,"  had  our  ideas  of  the  sacred  character  of 
landed  property  been  similar  in  degree  to  theirs,  we 
should  not  have  fared  better ;  for  according  to  the 
value  of  lands,  we  have  practised  on  the  subject 
with  great  skill. 


44  RAILWAY   PROPERTY. 


CHAPTER  in. 

LOCATION    OF    RAILWAY. 

THE  first  field  duty  is  that  of  survey  for  location. 
The  terminal  points  are  usually  determined  in  the 
outset  of  the  project,  and  the  work  required  is  to 
settle  the  intermediate  line,  which  should  devolve 
on  the  engineer ;  at  least  he  should  make  all  neces- 
sary surveys,  maps  and  estimates  of  expense,  and 
lay  the  whole  before  the  Board  of  Directors,  with 
his  opinion  as  to  the  most  elegible  route.  In  the 
early  history  of  our  railways  this  was  the  usual,  if 
not  the  general  practice.  This  method  places  a 
direct  responsibility  on  the  engineer,  who  is  best 
qualified  to  meet  it,  and  whose  professional  reputa- 
tion is  materially  concerned  to  guard  against  errors 
that  a  future  observer  might  discover.  On  his  skill 
and  fidelity  much  must  depend,  and  the  directors 
of  a  railway  company  will  need  good  judgment  in 
selecting  one  whose  experience  and  skill  will  be  a 
guaranty  that  this  duty  will  be  discharged  with 
ability  and  fidelity  to  the  interest  of  the  enterprise. 
The  desirable  result,  it  is  evident,  has  not  always 


LOCAflON    OF    RAILWAY.  45 

been  secured.  Locations  have  been  made  that  re- 
quired large  expenditures  to  correct,  or  when  not 
corrected  have  worked  a  permanent  detriment  to 
the  line.  This  has  sometimes  resulted  from  incom- 
petent engineering,  but  not  always.  Scheming 
directors  and  agents,  and  sometimes  speculating 
engineers  have  had  other  objects  than  the  interest 
of  the  corporation  to  control  their  action,  and  lead 
to  improper  location.  When  persons  of  this  class 
obtain  a  seat  in  a  board  of  directors,  they  will  be 
most  likely  to  employ  an  engineer  who  they  regard 
best  calculated  to  serve  their  object ;  and  these  are 
not  engineers  of  high  standing  for  professional  skill, 
firmness  and  fidelity.  Another  source  of  error  in 
this  respect  is,  that  of  giving  the  contractor  the 
control  over  the  location  within  certain  restrictions 
of  grade  and  curvature,  by  which  he  may  travel  a 
good  deal  out  of  the  proper  location,  very  much  to 
the  permanent  injury  of  the  proprietors.  It  not 
unfrequently  happens  that  the  citizens  of  a  town,  in 
order  to  secure  facilities  for  their  accommodation, 
are  very  active  and  contrive  to  exert  an  influence 
011  questions  of  location,  that  involve  large  future 
expenditures  to  correct  the  errors  they  induce. 

In  a  new  country,  with  its  business  undeveloped, 
towns  are  in  some  instances  started,  make  consi- 
derable progress,  and  finally  prove  not  to  be  in  the 


4G  RAILWAY    PEOPEETY. 

proper  line  of  the  commerce  the  railway  is  con- 
structed to  accommodate,  and  after  falling  into  this 
error,  the  corporation  find  themselves  compelled  to 
change  a  considerable  part  of  their  railway  or  have 
their  traffic  divided  by  a  rival  line.  In  whatever 
way  it  may  happen,  an  injudicious  location  will 
work  a  damage  to  the  proprietors. 

If  the  termini  of  a  railway  be  well  settled,  the 
line  should  generally  be  located  on  the  most  direct 
route  between  them,  that  the  formation  of  the  coun- 
try will  permit.  It  rarely  happens  that  any  local 
object  of  traffic  will  warrant  material  elongation 
of  the  line,  especially  in  a  new  country.  A  railway 
(unless  for  some  special  object)  can  only  be  sup- 
ported by  general  traffic,  and  it  is  manifestly 
important,  that  this  should  not  be  burdened  for  a 
local  object,  unless  that  be  of  very  considerable 
magnitude ;  for  it  is  obvious,  that  so  far  as  it  travels 
out  of  a  proper  line,  it  is  at  the  expense  of  its  mam 
traffic.  A  further  source  of  error  in  this  respect  is, 
the  haste  very  often  indulged,  to  commence  the 
work,  not  allowing  the  engineer  sufficient  time  to 
perfect  his  surveys  and  examinations,  and  thereby 
compelling  him  to  act  in  this  important  duty,  on 
inadequate  knowledge  of  matters  affecting  the 
question.  Nothing  can  be  more  impolitic  or  unwise 
than  this,  for  men  who  propose  an  investment  of 


LOCATION    OF    RAILWAY.  47 

funds.  It  should  be  kept  steadily  in  mind  that  a 
railway  is  an  expensive  thing  at  best,  and  to 
increase  this  by  hasty  and  inconsiderate  action  on 
the  important  matter  of  location,  may  greatly  im- 
pair the  value  of  the  investment,  while  it  only 
gratifies  an  excessive  ardor,  by  no  means  consistent 
with  a  wise  and  energetic  pursuit  of  important 
business. 

The  duty  of  location  is  a  very  important  one  to 
the  proprietors  and  the  public ;  both  being  inter 
ested  in  effecting  the  cheapest  transport.  In .  pro 
ceeding  upon  it,  the  first  object  should  be  to  under 
stand  the  general  line  of  the  trade  of  the  country 
through  which  the  railway  is  to  be  made.  Eail 
ways  that  cross  this  line,  at  or  near  right  angles, 
are  seldom  successful.  If  no  error  be  committed  in 
this  respect,  what  remains  is  essentially  to  obtain  a 
thorough  knowledge  of  the  face  of  the  country 
between  the  termini,  from  which  the-  relative  ad- 
vantages may  be  reduced  by  calculation  and  esti- 
mates of  their  bearing  on  the  cost  and  the  commer- 
cial importance  of  intermediate  objects.  On  some 
lines  the  physical  formation  of  the  country  clearly 
points  out  the  proper  route.  Others  require  exten- 
sive surveys  to  determine  it.  The  latter  are  most 
likely  to  suffer  for  want  of  competent  engineering. 
Instances  have  occurred  in  which  a  considerable 


48  RAILWAY   PROPERTY. 

amount  of  new  railway  had  to  be  made,  to  correct 
errors  of  location,  and  receive  the  traffic  the  line 
was  originally  designed  to  accommodate ;  thus  load- 
ing the  enterprise  with  large  additional  capital, 
that  would  not  have  been  necessary  had  the 
original  location  been  correct.  But  though  the 
error  may  not  be  such  as  to  lead  to  the  making  of 
a  new  line  for  any  part,  it  may  prove  a  permanent 
injury  by  loading  the  traffic  with  unnecessary  cur- 
rent expense.  From  whatever  cause  this  may  have 
happened,  it  is  equivalent  to  a  loss  of  capital,  and 
consequent  diminution  of  dividends,  necessarily 
impairing  the  proprietary  interest,  especially  that 
of  stockholders  in  the  institution. 

After  the  settlement  of  the  terminal,  and  (if  there 
be  any)  any  other  controlling  points  on  the  route,  it 
is  important  to  secure  the  most  favorable  grades  and 
allignment.  On  these  points  little  need  be  said ;  it 
being  obvious  these  should  be  as  easy  as  the  forma- 
tion of  the  country  may  permit  within  the  range  of 
suitable  expense  of  construction.  It  has  sometimes 
been  the  practice  to  adopt  a  uniform  curve  for  all 
points  that  produce  angles  in  the  line,  and  in  others 
a  maximum  and  minimum  rule  has  been  adopted. 
The  best  method  is  to  adopt  the  largest  radii,  or 
least  practicable  curve  the  formation  of  the  ground 
will  permit.  The  mode  of  construction  of  railway 


LOCATION    OF   RAILWAY.  4 

carriages  is  adapted  to  run  on  straight  lines,  and 
any  departure  from  this  must  be  forced  against 
additional  friction.  Sharp  curvature  is  also  objec- 
tionable, as  obstructing  the  view  of  approaching 
trains. 

In  a  line  having  considerable  preponderance  of 
trade  in  one  direction,  there  will  be  advantage  in 
inclination  in  this  direction,  corresponding  to  the 
preponderance  in  the  weight  of  traffic  ;  otherwise  a 
level  is  the  best  grade  for  a  railway.  This  cannot 
always  be  obtained,  and  indeed  on  most  lines,  only 
to  a  partial  extent.  The  practice  should  aim  at  the 
least  practical  departure  from  it.  To  reduce  what 
is  termed  the  ruling  grade,  will  often  justify  pretty 
heavy  expense,  and  more  or  less  elongation  of  line, 
aa  this  feature  will  control  the  weight  of  trains. 


50  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 


CHAPTEE  IY. 

METHOD    OF    BUSINESS. 

THE  method  of  business  pursued  in  conducting 
che  work  of  construction  has  been  widely  different 
at  different  times  and  on  different  railways.  The 
plan  adopted  in  the  commencement  of  railways  was 
to  have  maps  and  profiles  of  the  line,  and  plans  and 
specifications  of  the  manner  in  which  the  work  was 
to  be  done.  As  soon  as  these  were  prepared,  the 
work  was  advertised  for  contract,  and  let  to  the 
lowest  bidder  who  was  considered  responsible  lor  the 
undertaking.  Propositions  for  the  work,  received 
In  this  way,  were  reduced  to  contracts,  providing 
for  payment  at  certain  rates  on  the  several  items. 
The  engineer  was  made  the  inspector  and  the 
umpire  between  the  parties,  from  whose  decision 
there  was  no  appeal  in  regard  to  anything  pertain- 
ing to  the  contract — the  manner  of  performing  the 
work,  the  measurement  and  estimate  of  quantities 
provided  for  in  the  contract,  and  the  valuation  of 
any  extra  work  that  unforeseen  circumstances  might 
call  for  in  the  course  of  construction.  The  samo 


METHOD   OF   BUSINESS.  51 

mode  of  proceeding  had  generally  been  adopted  in 
the  construction  of  canals.  In  this  method,  the 
engineer  stood  between  the  corporation  and  the 
contractor;  and  upon  his  capacity  for  his  duties 
and  fidelity  to  the  parties,  the  system  very  much 
depended.  A  want  of  confidence  could  not  fail  to 
produce  dissatisfaction,  and  it  is  obvious  it  could 
only  be  maintained  by  the  administration  of  engi- 
neers of  sound  business  experience  and  unques- 
tioned fidelity  of  character. 

In  the  early  history  of  railways,  the  line  was 
divided  for  construction  contracts  into  sections  of 
one  or  two  miles  in  length,  and  contracts  made  for 
the  grading  of  each  section ;  and  for  light  work 
several  sections  were  sometimes  let  in  one  contract. 
But  the  large  amount  of  this  kind  of  work  soon 
called  into  this  service  contractors  whose  ambition 
aspired  to  larger  contracts,  and  they  gradually 
drove  from  the  ranks  of  original  contractors  many 
that  had  been  content  with  moderate  contracts,  and 
who  depended  on  their  small  capitals,  and  a  per- 
sonal supervision  of  their  work,  for  their  remunera- 
tion. The  latter  were  either  compelled  to  abandon 
their  occupation  or  employ  themselves  on  sub- 
contracts from  their  more  influential  associates. 
Eventually,  contractors  did  not  feel  satisfied  with 
anything  short  of  the  entire  railway ;  including 


52  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

grading,  bridging  and  laying  track,  with  some 
station  buildings  and  rolling  stock,  with  the  addi 
tion  in  some  instances  of  the  iron  rails,  chairs, 
spikes,  etc.  So  long  as  the  original  principle  was 
maintained,  and  the  contract  made  with  carefully 
prepared  specifications,  and  a  competent  engineer 
placed  in  full  authority  as  the  inspector  and  umpire 
between  the  parties  in  the  contract,  and  the  com- 
pensation determined  by  the  measurement  of  each 
item  of  work  done,  as  originally  practised,  the  evil 
of  large  contracts  was  not  so  great.  Still  it  was 
not  the  best  method.  The  advantage  over  it 
of  several  contractors,  is,  that  work  is  generally 
better  done  at  lower  rates ;  and  as  contractors  some- 
times fail  to  perform  their  contracts,  either  by 
doing  their  work  improperly,  or  not  as  rapidly  as 
their  contracts  require,  and  the  work  has  to  be  re- 
let,  in  such  cases  when  there  are  a  number  of 
contractors  on  the  work,  the  failure  of  one  is  of  less 
importance,  and  involves  less  difficulty  and  delay 
in  re-letting  than  when  all,  or  the  principal  part  of 
the  work  is  in  the  hands  of  one  firm.  A  further 
difficulty  occurs  most  usually  from  letting  in  large 
contracts  to  one  firm,  from  the  disposition  to  sub-let 
the  work,  and  thereby  introduce  upon  the  line  men 
as  contractors  whom  the  officers  of  the  railway  com- 
pany would  not  accept,  often  causing  embarrass- 


METHOD   OF   BUSINESS.  53 

mcnt  in  the  prosecution  of  the  work.  If,  as  is 
usually  the  case,  the  contractor  is  restricted  in  his 
contract  in  regard  to  sub-letting,  he  will  more 
or  less  contrive  to  evade  or  disregard  the  restric- 
tion. 

For  some  years  past  it  has  come  to  be  a  very 
common  practice  to  put  the  entire  work  of  con- 
structing a  railway  into  one  contract.  The  influ- 
ence that  has  produced  this  practice  has  generally 
impaired  the  authority  and  power  of  the  engineer, 
which  was  naturally  to  be  expected,  as  the  con- 
tractor who  can  wield  an  influence  to  control  so 
much  work  is  not  likely  to  be  controlled  by  an 
engineer.  He  looks  on  the  engineer  as  only  use- 
ful to  set  stakes  and  levels,  and  perhaps  make 
estimates  for  his  sub-contractors.  In  some  in- 
stances the  engineer  has  been  appointed  subject 
to  the  approval  of  the  contractor,  and  subordinate 
engineers  employed  and  paid  by  the  contractor 
directly. 

One  of  the  most  common  methods  adopted  by 
contractors  to  obtain  the  entire  work  of  a  line,  is  to 
contract  for  a  large  part  of  their  pay  in  the  stock 
and  bonds  of  the  company.  It  will  readily  be  per- 
ceived that  parties  desirous  of  securing  the  indirect 
benefits  of  a  railway,  and  not  able  to  obtain  suffi- 
cient cash  stock  to  do  the  work,  would  roadily  fall 


54:  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

into  such  a  method  of  contracting.  And  if  such 
parties  (as  is  most  probable)  have  the  controlling 
management  of  a  railway  enterprise,  they  will  find 
plausible  reasons  to  satisfy  what  cash  subscribers 
they  may  chance  to  have,  that  it  is  the  wisest 
policy  to  contract  with  one  firm  for  the  entire 
work ;  that  they  may  know  in  the  outset  what  the 
work  will  cost,  and  not  be  subject  to  the  uncer- 
tainty of  an  engineer's  estimate.  This  is  a  plausi- 
ble fallacy,  as  experience  has  abundantly  demon- 
strated. 

Now,  if  the  object  be  to  secure  the  incidental 
benefits  that  may  result  from  a  railway,  this  method 
of  contracting  may  often  be  the  best,  if  not  the  only 
one  practicable ;  and  if  there  are  no  stockholders, 
except  those  who  are  so  interested  in  the  indirect 
benefits  of  the  railway  that  they  regard  income  on 
their  stock  as  a  secondary  object,  this  plan  of  con- 
tracting may  be  very  well.  Under  these  circum- 
stances, a  subscription  is  got  up  among  parties  so 
interested,  with  a  view  of  raising  a  portion  of  the 
funds  required,  and  mainly  to  give  currency  to  the 
bonds  of  the  company  that  must  be  relied  on  to  a 
large  extent.  To  do  this,  it  is  necessary  in  most 
cases  to  obtain  subscriptions  from  municipal  cor- 
porations of  towns  and  counties;  and  so  a  very 
respectable  amount  of  subscription  to  the  stock  is 


METHOD   OF    BUSINESS.  55 

obtained,  and  the  work  goes  on.  This  is  all  very 
well  so  long  as  the  original  parties  only  are  inte- 
rested. If,  however,  a  cash  subscriber  falls  in,  who 
has  only  interest  in  the  income  that  pays  dividends, 
he  will  most  probably  be  disappointed.  To  raise 
some  funds  on  stock,  and  give  apparent  basis  for 
bonds,  the  plan  may  be  presented  for  illustration  as 
follows :  A  limited  amount  of  stock  will  be  taken 
by  individuals  having  a  strong  indirect  interest  in 
the  business  of  the  railway.  This  subscription  will, 
to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  fail  to  be  paid.  The 
municipal  subscription  will  come  in  the  form  of 
town  and  county  bonds,  guaranteed  by  the  railway 
company;  these  bonds  will  be  sold  at  a  discount 
according  to  the  credit  that  may  be  given  them ; 
the  private  subscription  may  in  part  (as  frequently 
done)  be  paid  in  farm  mortgages,  guaranteed  by  the 
railway  company,  and  sold  by  them  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  municipal  bonds,  at  considerable  dis- 
count. These  are  the  cash  elements  on  which  the 
contractor  begins  his  work.  To  obtain  the  iron  rails, 
it  is  common  to  issue  first  mortgage  bonds  to  a  lim- 
ited amount.  The  contractor  must,  of  course,  take  a 
large  part  of  his  pay  in  the  stock  and  bonds  of  the 
company.  It  is  apparent  that  the  contractor,  in 
regulating  his  compensation,  must  take  into  account 
the  value  of  the  material  he  is  to  receive  in  pay- 


56  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

ment;  and  this  will  depend  much  on  his  ability  and 
skill  in  financiering  his  stock  and  bonds.  If  the 
enterprise  be  faithfully  carried  out  on  this  plan,  it  is 
evident  the  nominal  capital  will  be  much  above  what 
would  be  required  in  constructing  a  railway  for  cash. 
But  the  method  under  consideration  has  further  and 
peculiar  tendency  to  swell  the  cost.  In  such  con- 
tracts, by  a  single  firm  for  an  entire  railway,  it  is 
usual  to  provide  for  only  so  much  work  as  will  be 
indispensable  to  run  trains ;  ballasting  is  rarely  pro- 
vided for  to  any  further  extent  than  may  be  furnished 
by  materials  from  excavation  of  prism ;  and  the  result 
is,  that  the  work  contracted  for  is  not  much  more 
than  half  done,  and  consequently  requires  large  ex- 
penditures after  it  is  accepted  by  the  railway  com- 
pany, showing  conclusively  that  the  contract  did  not 
determine  the  cost  of  the  work.  The  evil  that  has 
resulted  to  railway  property  by  this  course  of  busi- 
ness has  been  disastrous  according  to  the  necessities 
of  the  enterprise,  the  character  of  the  managers,  and 
the  degree  to  which  the  system  has  been  carried. 
Under  the  most  favorable  circumstances,  the  whole- 
sale system  of  contracting,  even  on  the  cash  plan, 
enhances  the  cost  of  the  work,  from  the  causes 
before  mentioned.  Its  tendency  is  to  undermine 
the  authority  and  usefulness  of  the  engineer  as  in- 
spector and  umpire,  if  it  does  not  entirely  override 


METHOD    OF    BUSINESS.  57 

and  dispense  with  his  authority,  and .  inevitably 
gives  the  railway  company  work  inferior  to  what 
they  contracted  for,  and  compels  them  to  materially 
increase  their  capital,  in  order  to  bring  their  work 
to  the  standard  required  by  the  contract.  In  some 
contracts  the  contractor  has  been  allowed  to  vary  the 
grades  and  curves  within  certain  limits.  Hence  it 
was  his  interest  (as  his  contract  is  usually  for  a  round 
sum)  to  make  many  modifications  in  these  respects, 
that  prove  a  permanent  source  of  embarrassment 
and  injury  in  operating  and  conducting  the  traffic 
of  the  railway,  necessarily  impairing  the  interest  of 
the  proprietors ;  and,  instead  of  the  contract  settling 
the  cost  of  the  work,  it  leaves  the  question,  even 
after  it  is  opened  for  use,  totally  unsettled,  except 
that  the  cost  is  to  be  looked  for  much  beyond  the 
limits  of  the  contract,  and  represented  in  second  and 
third  mortgage  bonds,  under  which  the  value  of  the 
stock  gradually  depreciates,  and  sometimes  passes 
out  of  view.  Though  I  regard  the  mode  as  highly 
objectionable,  it  must  be  admitted  a  few  railways 
constructed  in  this  way  have  turned  out  to  be  fair 
investments  for  the  stockholders:  such  have  been 
located  in  a  comparatively  new  country,  with  great 
facility  for  cheap  construction ;  strong  natural 
sources  of  traffic,  that  were  rapidly  developed  by  the 
railway ;  and  having  fallen  into  the  hands  of  favorable 


58  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

managers,  the  evils  of  the  system  were  only  par- 
tially experienced,  and  the  traffic  proved  sufficient 
to  afford  fair  dividends.  This,  however,  does  not 
prove  the  system  good ;  it  is  only  an  exception  to  a 
ruie  generally  bad.  The  railways  more  recently 
constructed  on  this  plan  have  added  to  their  capital 
from  25  to  100  per  cent,  over  the  amount  that  would 
have  been  required  by  a  sound  system  of  business ; 
and  hence  one  cause  of  the  depreciation  of  this  kind 
of  property ;  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  the  old 
method  of  business  is  the  best  for  parties  who  fur- 
nish cash  to  build  railways,  as  an  investment  of 
funds. 

Amalgamations  have  been  made,  and  branch 
lines  constructed,  under  the  plausible  idea  of  in- 
creasing the  income  of  the  main  line,  while  the 
result  has  shown  that,  in  most  cases,  the  capital  has 
been  increased  proportionably  more  than  the  net 
income,  and  the  only  party  benefited  has  been 
some  scheming  contractor  or  jobbing  manager. 

The  financial  business  of  railway  corporations  was 
originally  commenced  by  opening  books  for  sub- 
scription to  the  stock;  and  having  secured  the 
amount  supposed  to  be  sufficient  for  the  undertak- 
ing, installments  were  called  in  as  wanted  for  the 
work.  In  this  way  the  principal  capital  was  raised. 
It  was  regarded  necessary  to  have  at  least  half,  and 


METHOD   OF    BUSINESS.  59 

tiometimes  three-fourths  or  the  whole  of  the  amoun 
needed  in  the  form  of  stock.  If  bonds  were  issued 
it  was  not  done  until  the  investment  by  stock  had 
made  a  good  basis  for  the  security  of  the  bonds. 
The  bonds  were  usually  sold  under  advertisement 
to  the  highest  bidder,  provided  there  was  no  restric- 
tion as  to  usury,  and  commanded  par,  or  nearly 
par,  for  seven  per  cent,  bonds. 

Gradually  the  old  method  of  conducting  the 
finances  gave  way  to  a  different  system.  In  the 
ardor  of  the  railway  movement,  opportunity  was 
afforded  for  men  to  enter  into  their  management, 
not  faithfully  to  discharge  a  trust,  but  for  the  pur- 
pose of  enriching  themselves  at  the  expense  of  those 
who  confided  in  their  supposed  fidelity.  Such  men 
have  ruined  the  stock,  and  greatly  impaired  the  in- 
terest of  the  bond  proprietors  of  railways  that 
should  have  been  the  best  investments  of  this  kind 
in  the  country.  A  small  clique  of  such  men  will 
often  baffle  the  efforts  of  a  majority  of  fair-minded 
directors,  and  gradually  deplete  the  proprietary  in- 
terest. They  enter  the  management  with  fair  pre- 
tensions, and  contrive  to  obtain  sufficient,  if  not  most 
of  the  proxies  for  elections.  Where  the  railway  is 
far  distant  from  most  of  the  proprietors,  and  they 
know  little  except  from  reports,  the  means  for  con- 
trolling the  institution  is  not  difficult  to  compass.  It 


60  BA1LWAY    PKOPEKTY. 

is  hardly  worth  while  to  go  into  particulars,  at  this 
time,  of  the  process  of  the  financiering  of  such  men  ; 
they  have  left  their  marks  too  indelibly  fixed  on  the 
railways  that  have  come  under  their  financial  man- 
agement, to  require  anything  more  than  an  allusion 
to  this  source  of  depletion,  to  which  railway  pro- 
prietors may  look  for  a  large  portion  of  the  loss  of 
their  property.  This,  with  the  method  of  contract- 
ing, the  construction  of  branch  lines,  and  amalgama- 
tions, has  so  overloaded  many  of  our  railways  with 
capital,  that  the  prospect  of  the  stock  proprietors  is 
very  discouraging,  if  not  hopeless;  and  even  the 
bond  proprietors  find  their  interest  greatly  de- 
pressed, and  what  they  had  regarded  as  very  safe, 
has  proved  to  be  very  uncertain. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  the  old  method  of  finance 
and  contracting  was  the  best.  It  had  sound  busi- 
ness principles  to  rest  on,  and  by  it,  enterprises  of 
a  difficult  and  expensive  nature  have  been  carried 
through,  and  succeeded  as  fairly  remunerating  in- 
vestments of  capital.  A  board  of  directors,  with 
fair  business  capacity  and  integrity  of  purpose,  with 
a  competent  and  faithful  engineer,  will  accomplish 
all  that  can  be  obtained,  and  if  they  do  not  make 
the  enterprise  profitable  to  the  proprietors,  it  will 
be  for  the  want  of  sufficient  inherent  elements  of 
success  in  the  enterprise  itself ;  and  no  system  of 


METHOD   OF   BUSINESS.  61 

wholesale  contracting  and  jobbing  financiering  will 
do  as  well,  if  investment  of  capital  be  the  object  of 
the  enterprise. 

A  practice  has  prevailed,  I  believe,  very  gene- 
rally in  England,  of  jobbing  the  engineering  of 
railways  at  a  percentage  of  five  or  more  per  cent, 
on  the  cost  of  the  work ;  the  engineer  employing 
and  maintaining  such  force  in  this  department  as 
he  judges  expedient.  There  are  two  serious  objec- 
tions to  this  method :  First,  it  offers  an  induce- 
ment to  the  engineer  to  increase  the  cost  of  the 
work — and  secondly,  to  employ  an  inadequate  force 
and  capacity  of  assistants  to  meet  the  proper  super- 
vision of  the  duties  that  devolve  on  this  depart- 
ment of  service.  It  encourages  a  speculating  spirit 
of  action  in  the  engineer ;  and  this  once  getting 
hold  of  his  mind,  will  be  very  likely  to  lead  to 
many  abuses.  A  fixed  salary  should  be  the  only 
pecuniary  resource  an  engineer  should  have  in 
view,  in  a  work  committed  to  his  supervision,  and 
if  he  possesses  the  morality  that  should  control  him, 
his  entire  energies  will  be  devoted  to  the  duties  he 
owes  to  the  proprietors,  and  as  umpire  between 
them  and  the  contractors.  An  engineer  devoted  to 
the  acquisition  of  knowledge,  in  the  noble  and  re- 
sponsible objects  of  his  profession,  and  the  attain- 
ment of  the  high  character  that  should  animate  and 


62  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

possess  those  who  are  charged  with  the  care  and 
management  of  the  interests  of  others,  will  have  no 
time  for  speculating  schemes ;  and  it  may  be  set 
down  as  a  rule,  that  an  engineer  given  to  specula- 
tion and  effort  for  a  rapid  accumulation  of  wealth, 
will  be  superficial  in  his  professional  acquirements, 
and  very  unsafe  in  his  duties  generally,  and  espe- 
cially as  an  umpire  between  the  proprietors  and  the 
contractors. 

It  is  often  remarked,  that  the  estimates  of  engi- 
neers, made  of  the  cost  of  projected  works,  are  much 
below  the  actual  expenditure.  No  doubt  this  is 
very  generally  true.  The  engineer  who  makes  the 
estimate  must  bear  the  responsibility,  at  least  so 
far  as  professional  reputation  is  concerned.  He  is 
exposed  to  the  suspicion  of  acting  with  a  view  to 
obtain  occupation  in  the  prospective  supervision  of 
the  work.  He  is  not,  however,  the  only  erring 
party.  Men  who  have  an  indirect  interest  to  serve, 
are  often  engaged  as  promoters,  and  perhaps  mana- 
gers of  the  preliminary  business  of  the  enterprise : 
to  whom  the  actual  cost  and  net  income  are  second- 
ary considerations — subordinate  to  the  incidental 
benefits  they  expect  to  derive  from  a  railway. 
Their  object  is  to  induce  capitalists  to  furnish  funds 
for  construction ;  and  to  make  it  as  promising  as 
possible,  a  low  estimate  of  cost  is  advantageous. 


METHOD   OF  BUSINESS.  63 

Such  persons  accompany  the  engineer  in  his  ex< 
animations,  and  usually  represent  the  facilities  of 
the  work,  in  the  most  favorable  light.  All  kinds 
of  material  wanted  for  construction  are  easily  and 
cheaply  to  be  had  ;  and  if  some  desirable  kind  does 
not  present  itself,  substitutes,  though  of  acknow- 
ledged inferiority,  are  strongly  urged  as  proper 
and  suitable  under  the  circumstances — the  aspects 
of  trade  are  urged  as  offering  the  prospect  of  low 
rates  for  all  kinds  of  labor.  These  are  pressed  on 
the  consideration  of  the  engineer,  not  merely  by  an 
individual,  but  generally  by  the  influential  men  he 
meets  in  the  course  of  his  examination.  To  meet 
these  influences,  he  has  comparatively  small  means 
and  limited  time.  Often  the  parties  that  bring 
these  influences  to  bear,  furnish  the  means  for  the 
preliminary  survey  and  estimate,  and  the  engineer 
is  not  allowed  to  be  ignorant  of  the  result  of  an  un- 
favorable estimate;  namely,  that  the  money  fur- 
nished for  the  survey  will  be  lost  to  those  who 
have  been  his  patrons.  To  all  this  it  will  be  pro- 
perly said,  the  engineer  should  not  allow  himself 
to  be  controlled  by  influences  that  lead  him  into 
professional  errors.  A  less  reprehensible  source  of 
error,  in  original  estimates,  is  found  in  the  inade- 
quacy of  the  views  and  plans  of  work,  to  meet  the 
unexpected  demands  of  the  traffic :  the  develop- 


64:  RAILWAY   PROPERTY. 

ments  of  business  raising  this  sometimes  100  per 
cent,  above  the  original  estimates  of  trade,  and  con- 
sequently demanding  works  of  more  capacity  of 
accommodation,  and  necessarily  of  greater  expense. 
This  state  of  things  is  not  unusual,  and  while  the 
cost  of  construction  is  carried  up  to  meet  a  largei 
traffic  than  was  anticipated,  it  is  not  reasonable  to 
hold  the  engineer  responsible  for  the  excess  that 
arises  from  this  contingency. 

The  duty  involved  in  the  preliminary  survey  anc 
estimate  for  an  important  railway  enterprise  is  no 
easy  task.  To  do  it  properly,  so  as  to  secure  a 
reasonable  approximation  to  the  cost,  the  engineer 
should  have  sufficient  time  and  means  to  make  sur- 
veys, essentially  adequate  for  a  location  of  line — by 
trial  pits  obtain  at  least  a  fair  general  knowledge 
of  the  soils  to  be  excavated — prepare  plans  for  the 
various  structures  in  sufficient  detail,  to  enable 
him  to  make  computation  of  the  quantities  for  the 
several  kinds  of  work  required — and  to  ascertain 
the  existing  facilities  for  obtaining  materials  for  the 
wants  of  the  various  structures  necessary  in  the 
work.  Thus  prepared,  an  estimate  may  be  made 
that  would  form  a  reasonably  safe  basis  for  the 
financial  interest  involved  in  the  construction  of  a 
railway.  This  method,  however,  is  rarely  adopted. 
No  one  perhaps  will  object  to  it-,  as  being  a  sound 


METHOD    OF   BUSINESS.  65 

and  sensible  mode  of  reaching  the  object.  But  it 
requires  considerable  expense  and  time  to  obtain 
the  desired  information  in  this  way ;  the  means  may 
be  wanting  to  meet  the  expense,  and  patience  is 
wanting  to  grant  the  necessary  time. 

If  a  company  of  discreet  business  men  should 
undertake  the  construction  of  a  railway  for  the 
single  object  of  making  it  an  investment  of  funds, 
they  would  proceed  in  the  manner  last  described, 
preferring  to  risk  a  loss  of  one  per  cent,  in  obtain- 
ing reliable  knowledge  of  the  probable  cost,  to 
that  of  hazarding  greater  loss  by  trusting  to  insuffi- 
cient examination.  It  does  not  invalidate  the  argu- 
ment, that  the  proceedings  in  the  preliminary  steps 
for  this  kind  of  enterprise  have  generally  been  of  a 
different  character ;  and  that,  notwithstanding  this 
deficiency  in  examination,  they  have  sometimes 
been  successful;  for  while  cases  of  success  have 
occurred,  many  have  resulted  unfavorably,  greatly 
disappointing  the  expectations  of  the  promoters  of 
the  enterprise. 

There  are  two  legitimate  objects  that  appertain 
to  the  construction  of  a  railway,  namely,  the  direct 
one  of  making  it  a  profitable  investment  as  a  divi- 
dend-paying enterprise;  the  other,  the  indirect 
benefits  to  trade,  general  intercouse,  and  to  increase 
the  "  value  of  houses  and  lands."  For  either  of 


DO  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

these,  a  man  may  legitimately  seek  to  promote  his 
interest  by  furnishing  funds  for  a  railway  ;  and  in 
either  case,  he  will  need  the  same  care  in  all  the 
methods  of  business.  Other  inducements  to  pro- 
mote the  enterprise  may  be  found  by  speculat- 
ing men,  who  contemplate  benefits  to  arise  out  of 
the  current  business  of  the  corporation — as  the 
contracting,  that  looks  only  to  the  chance  of  a  good 
job,  to  be  secured  by  a  position  of  influence ;  also 
the  financiering,  that  looks  to  the  use  that  may  be 
made  of  transactions  in  the  stock,  bonds,  branch 
lines,  amalgamations,  and  other  fiscal  operations  of 
the  company — and  have  no  further  regard  to  the 
funds,  or  the  econ'omy  of  the  work,  than  may  be 
necessary  to  secure  their  personal  object.  How- 
ever little  desirable,  the  latter  have  been  fully 
represented  in  many  important  enterprises  of  this 
kind,  as  the  history  of  railway  management  too 
clearly  shows.  In  England  they  had  one  of  this 
sort,  who  was  styled  "  railway  king,"  and  at  one 
time  many  people  supposed  it  hardly  possible  to 
build  a  railway  without  the  support  of  his  coopera- 
tion. He  was  regarded  a  man  of  extraordinary 
capacity,  and  his  advice  was  sought  as  of  one  pos- 
sessed of  incomprehensible  powers.  The  deception, 
however,  as  to  his  great  powers  of  business,  was 
not  of  long  continuance.  His  frauds  were  disco- 


MRTH3D   OF   BUSINESS.  67 

vered ;  the  diadem  stripped  from  his  brow,  and  his 
seat  in  parliament  did  not  secure  him  from  the 
degradation  so  fully  earned  by  the  abuse  of  mis- 
placed confidence.  Our  country  has  not  escaped 
the  influence  of  this  class  of  men,  nor  can  we  claim 

-exemption  from  the  blind  devotion  that  gave  them 
power  of  mischief.  In  proportion  to  capital,  they 
have  probably  been  as  injurious  to  railway  invest- 
ments in  this  country  as  in  England.  If  their 
history  could  be  read  by  railway,  proprietors,  it 
would  point  out  a  cause  for  a  large  share  of  their 
losses,  which  arise  from  excessive  capital  in  the  con- 
struction account,  and  which  weigh  down  the 
stock  of  many  railway  corporations  with  a  load 
that  hardly  admits  the  hope  of  recuperation; 
and  this  on  lines  that,  under  sound  management, 
should  have  been  good  investments  of  funds. 

From  what  has  been  said  in  relation  to  contract- 
ing, no  imputation  must  be  inferred  in  respect  to 
the  honest  contractor,  who  in  fair  and  open  competi- 
tion takes  his  contract ;  nor  are  the  contracting  par- 
ties to  be  regarded  as  so  mischievous  as  those  who 
hold  indirect  interest  in  their  contracts  by  means 
of  oflicial  influence.  The  great  field  of  action  for 

f  depleting  a  railway  corporation  will  be  found,  for  the 
most  part,  within  the  board  of  directors ;  at  the  same 
time,  there  may  be  a  majority,  or  a  respectable 


68  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

minority  of  intelligent  and  fair-minded  directors, 
who  would  do  nothing  knowingly  to  injure  the 
property  of  the  corporation.  Two,  three,  or  four 
men  in  the  direction  generally  conduct  affairs ;  and 
if  these  are  fair  and  upright  men,  the  institu- 
tion may  be  properly  conducted.  But  if  not,  they 
may  easily  manage  affairs  with  reference  to  their 
personal  interest,  which  will  be  developed  by 
placing  men  in  their  own  interest  in  all  positions 
of  trust,  and  keeping  the  books  to  their  own  liking, 
so  that  other  directors  will  find  difficulty  in  obtain- 
ing information  of  the  real  course  of  proceeding 
And  if  perchance  any  one  becomes  suspicious  and 
troublesome,  no  effort  will  be  spared  to  impair  his 
influence.  He  is  impracticable,  an  old  fogy,  not  up 
to  railway  times,  or  is  influenced  by  jealousy ;  and 
his  less  suspicious  associates,  busied  with  their  pri- 
vate affairs,  and  having  no  time  for  long  stories,  pass 
over  his  complaints,  and  put  them  down  as  the  result 
of  a  suspicious  mind,  and  no  serious  objection  is  made 
at  the  next  election  to  leaving  out  of  the  board  the 
impracticable  director.  Now,  perhaps  with  a  little 
more  caution,  the  ruling  men  go  on,  more  or  less  to 
the  damage  of  the  proprietors.  No  doubt  much 
of  the  evil  of  unfaithful  management  arises  from 
the  fact,  that  directors  have  generally  but  little 
practical  knowledge  of  railway  business,  and  con- 


METHOD    OF   BUSINESS.  GO 

sequently  are  easily  misled  by  artful  and  unfaithful 
associates.  The  business,  moreover,  is  of  great 
detail,  and  requires  much  time  to  obtain  an  intelli- 
gent knowledge  of  affairs,  especially  if  not  con- 
ducted on  the  most  direct  and  strict  principles  of 
business ;  and  directors  are  not  generally  disposed 
to  give  the  time  necessary  for  thorough  examina- 
tion. They  receive  little  or  no  compensation ;  their 
position  is  regarded  an  honorary  one,  and  they 
naturally  expect  the  officers  to  do  the  work;  if 
they  act  on  a  committee,  they  expect  all  the  work 
prepared  to  their  hand.  This  is  clearly  wrong; 
they  should  make  full  investigation  and  know  from 
original  sources  the  basis  of  their  action.  But  this 
would  require  much  time,  and  the  officers,  Very 
likely,  would  feel  themselves  insulted  by  such 
manifestation  of  want  of  confidence,  and  if  coun- 
tenanced by  their  friends  in  the  direction,  they 
might,  by  indirect  proceedings,  greatly  embarrass, 
if  not  defeat  the  object  of  the  committee.  Such 
interference,  however,  if  attempted,  would  cease, 
if  the  practice  of  investigation  was  vigorously 
maintained.  A  committee  of  the  board  of  direc- 
tors, under  no  circumstances,  are  of  service  to  the 
proprietors,  if  they  are  of  that  party  in  the  board 
that  "may  hold  rule  adversely  to  the  proprietary 
interest,  as  they  are  to  be  regarded  a  mere  cloak  to 


TO  RAILWAY   PROPERTY. 

more  effectually  hide  what  should  be  seen.  It  is 
apparent,  the  safety  of  the  property  must  depend 
on  the  efficient  action  of  a  competent  and  faithful 
board  of  directors,  and  it  would  be  better  for  the 
interest  of  the  institution  to  make  them  such  com- 
pensation as  would  be  reasonable  for  the  time 
devoted  to  the  management,  and  thereby  fix  a 
business  responsibility ;  to  ask  them  to  devote  their 
time,  and  to  neglect  other  business,  without  remu- 
neration, is  not  reasonable,  and  rarely  expedient. 
Yery  few  men  devote  themselves  to  transact  the 
business  of  others,  without  compensation  in  some 
form,  and  if  it  is  not  direct  and  open,  it  may  be 
indirect,  and  this  no-compensation  may  be  regarded 
as  liable  to  be  of  the  most  expensive  kind  for  the 
proprietors.  Honor  will  satisfy  some  men  that  can 
afford  the  time,  but,  in  general,  the  ox  that  tread- 
eth  out  the  corn,  must  needs  have  a  portion. 


OliADLNQ.  71 


CHAPTER  V. 

GRADING. 

GRADING  is  understood  to  embrace  all  the  work 
required  to  bring  the  surface  of  the  ground  to  the 
grade  lines,  and  is  mostly  earth-work ;  for  a  limited 
extent  of  line  it  is  rock-work.  This  work  prepares 
the  bed  for  the  superstructure,  and  when  the  earth 
is  not  composed  of  sufficiently  hard  gravel  (and 
this  only  happens  occasionally)  it  is  excavated  to  a 
proper  depth,  so  as  to  give  space  for  the  ballast. 
In  this  branch  of  construction  the  drainage  is  to  be 
provided  for,  and  is  a  very  important  part  of  the 
work.  The  most  experienced  engineers  were  early 
impressed  with  the  necessity  of  thorough  attention 
to  this,  as  essential  to  a  good  railway.  In  soils 
through  which  water  percolates  freely,  as  coarse 
gravel  and  sand,  the  drainage  may  be  so  well 
provided  for  as  to  require  little  attention ;  but  most 
soils  are  too  retentive  for  this,  and  require  drains  to 
be  so  made,  as  to  take  the  water  off  quickly  to  some 
natural  or  artificial  channel,  which  will  carry  it 
beyond  the  reach  cf  influence  on  the  road-bed.  It 


.    RAILWAY    PKOPEBTT. 

is  not  sufficient  to  reduce  the  level  of  the  water 
merely  to  the  base  of  the  road-bed,  or  foundation 
of  the  ballast.  "Water  standing  at  or  near  this  level, 
will  soften  the  foundation  and  allow  the  ballast  to 
settle,  and  thus  derange  the  superstructure.  Stand- 
ing water  at  this  level,  while  it  leaves  the  top  of  the 
ballast  dry,  will,  by  capillary  attraction,  rise  so  as  to 
soften  the  bottom,  and  particularly  the  close  reten- 
tive soil  that  forms  the  bed  of  the  ballast.  An 
embankment  that  has  a  standing  pool  of  water 
against  it,  though  three  or  four  feet  below  its  top, 
will  be  impaired  in  its  stability  for  supporting  the 
superstructure,  so  as  to  require  frequent  adjustment 
of  the  rails.  Whether  from  rain  or  springs,  the 
water  should  have  quick  passage  to  some  point 
beyond  the  reach  of  influence  on  the  road-bed ;  and 
if  the  embankment  be  exposed  to  standing  water 
that  cannot  be  removed,  its  height,  if  practicable, 
should  be  raised,  with  heavy  gravel  and  stones,  at 
least  four  feet  (and  six  would  be  preferable)  above 
its  standing  level.  It  is  not  often  this  difficulty 
exists  to  an  extent  that  cannot  be  removed  by 
opening  ditches  so  as  to  lead  the  water  to  lower 
ground. 

It  is  not  often  that  much  difficulty  or  expense  ib 
encountered  to  protect  embankments  against  the 
influence  of  water ;  they  are  raised  above  the  natu 


GRADING.  73 

ral  surface  of  the  ground,  and  by  moderate  ditching 
their  base  is  easily  laid  dry.  According  to  the 
nature  of  the  soil  on  which  they  rest,  they  require 
more  or  less  attention,  in  order  to  insure  their 
stability,  and  give  regular  support  to  the  super- 
structure. Where  circumstances  give '  a  choice  of 
grade,  it  is  always  best  to  adopt  that  which  raises 
the  rail  above  the  natural  surface  two  or  three  feet ; 
this  with  small  side  ditches  generally  gives  a  good 
drainage  :  it  makes  a  cheap  road-bed,  and  is  parti- 
cularly important  if  ballasting  material  is  not  con- 
venient. It  generally  happens,  however,  that  such 
locations  admit  of  cheaper  grading,  by  running  the 
grade  nearer  the  natural  surface  of  the  ground  ;  a 
circumstance  that  a  contractor  working  by  the  mile 
or  under  a  lumping  contract,  who  has  power  to 
modify  grades,  will  most  likely  take  advantage  of, 
to  the  detriment  of  the  proprietors. 

In  excavation,  there  is  no  way  of  obtaining  ade- 
quate drainage  but  by  side  ditches,  that  are  low 
enough  to  take  the  water  from  the  road-bed.  This 
requires  the  width  of  excavation  beyond  what  is  re- 
quired for  the  road-bed,  to  be  sufficient  for  the  side- 
ditches.  The  bottom  of  these  ditches  should  be 
not  less  than  six  inches  below  the  foundation  of  the 
ballast,  when  the  latter  is  two  feet  deep,  or  with 
more  shallow  depth  of  ballast,  not  less  than  two  and 

4 


RAILWAY    PEOPERTY. 


a  half  feet  below  the  top  of  the  ballast,  and  provided 
with  a  quick  discharge,  that  will  readily  carry  off 
all  falling  water.  If  the  ground  be  springy,  and 
furnish  water  constantly,  or  the  greater  part  of 
the  time,  the  ditches  should  be  deeper,  so  as  to  effec- 
tually take  the  water  from  the  foundation  or  road- 
bed. The  ground  that  forms  the  foundation  of  the 
ballast  should  be  shaped  so  as  to  easily  lead  the  water 
that  settles  though  the  ballast  to  the  side  ditches.  In 
long  cuttings,  with  level  or  nearly  level  grades,  it 
is  advisable,  where  circumstances  permit,  to  raise 
the  grade  at  the  point  from  which  the  water  will 
most  readily  flow,  so  as  to  give  more  free  and  easy 
discharge  from  the  ditches  through  the  cut.  The 
inconvenience  to  the  traffic  in  such  cases,  by  the 
extra  rise  of  grade,  will  be  more  than  compensated 
by  the  superior  condition  in  which  the  track  will  be 
maintained  under  more  perfect  drainage.  It  is 
obvious  different  soils  will  require  different  degrees 
of  attention  to  drainage  ;  but  it  is  not  probable  any 
will  receive  more  attention  than  will  be  useful.  To 
make  the  necessary  ditches  in  deep  cuttings  involves 
considerable  expense  in  opening  the  cuttings  wide 
enough  to  provide  for  the  widths  and  slopes  of  the 
side  ditches.  From  the  desire  to  avoid  as  much  as 
possible  this  expense,  the  ditches  are  generally  in- 
adequate ;  small  at  first,  and  soon  filled  up  from 


GRADING.  75 

the  wash  of  the  banks.  The  width  required  for  a 
side  ditch  and  its  slopes  will  vary  in  different  soils  ; 
but  it  will  rarely  happen  in  soils  of  a  retentive  kind 
that  less  than  eight  feet  will  be  sufficient  to  do  the 
work  well.  This  for  the  two  ditches  requires  sixteen 
feet  to  be  added  to  the  width  of  the  cutting,  besides 
what  is  necessary  for  the  road-bed.  This  extra 
width  of  cutting,  it  will  be  perceived,  does  not 
increase  the  excavation  in  proportion  to  the  whole 
cut ;  for  the  slopes  are  required  for  any  width,  and 
the  addition  is  a  parallelogram  of  the  extra  width 
and  depth  of  the  cutting.  If,  however,  the  cut  be 
deep,  it  will  add  considerably  to  the  excavation,  and 
hence  twenty  feet  width  has  often  been  adopted  as 
the  rule  instead  of  twenty-six  to  thirty  feet.  In 
rock-cutting,  as  no  slope  is  required,  the  ditch  will 
need  much  less  width ;  and  the  drainage  is  not  as 
important  as  in  earth  cuttings.  The  ballast  cannot 
sink  in  rock,  and  if  it  be  of  a  hard  gravel  or  broken 
stone  it  will  not  suffer  much  from  water ;  at  the 
same  time,  it  will  not  answer  to  neglect  drainage 
even  in  rock-cuttings,  as  frost  would  operate  in  cold 
weather  on  the  ballast,  and  by  heaving  derange  the 
superstructure :  also,  if  the  ballast  is  not  of  a  supe- 
rior quality,  drainage  is  necessary  to  enable  it  to 
bear  the  service  of  trains. 

This  is  a  department  of  work  very  likely  to  be 


76  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

imperfectly  done,  if  the  funds  provided  are  made 
quate  to  the  work,  and  the  ruling  effort  is  to  get  a 
railway  on  which  trains  may  be  run  at  some  rate. 
The  railways  made  under  general  contracts  almost 
invariably  fail  in  securing  good,  or  even  tolerable 
drainage.  The  after- work  that  follows  imperfection 
in  this  respect,  usually,  and  it  may  be  said  always, 
is  done  at  a  great  increase  of  cost ;  and  it  will  gene- 
rally be  a  long  time  before  it  will  be  brought  to  a 
reasonable  degree  of  perfection.  In  the  meantime 
great  injury  is  experienced  to  the  rails  and  rolling 
machinery.  Railways  intended  to  be  run  more  or 
less  (as  is  often  the  case)  without  ballast,  or  with 
light  and  imperfect  ballast,  are  especially  in  need 
of  good  drainage.  It  cannot  be  recommended  to  open 
a  railway  for  transportation  without  ballast,  but  if 
circumstances  demand  this,  the  drainage  should  be 
thoroughly  done,  in  order  to  obtain  the  best  condi- 
tion for  poor  materials  that  is  practicable  to  sustain 
the  service  of  trains.  By  thorough  attention  to  this 
department  of  work,  inferior  soil  may  sustain  a  con- 
siderable traffic.  In  any  case,  where  there  is  a 
want  of  suitable  material  for  ballast,  or  if  the  funds 
are  not  at  command  to  put  it  on,  the  machinery  of 
the  railway  should  be  much  lighter  than  may  be 
suitable  for  use  on  a  well  ballasted  railway. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  the  railways  of  our  coun- 


GRADING.  77 

try  are  greatly  deficient  in  drainage.  This  causes 
a  large  additional  expense  in  repairs  of  track,  and 
in  the  wear  and  tear  of  rolling  machinery.  No  rail- 
way management  that  neglects  thorough  drainage 
can  be  regarded  as  sound  in  economy ;  the  saving 
in  the  original  outlay  will  be  much  more  than 
absorbed  by  the  extra  subsequent  expenditure — pro- 
bably three  or  four  fold.  If  the  grade  line  of  a 
railway  has  been  laid  so  low  that  the  water  cannot 
be  fully  taken  off  by  drainage,  the  grade  should 
be  raised  so  as  to  carry  it  out  of  the  reach  of  this 
destructive  influence. 

In  a  work  recently  published  by  Colburn  and 
Holley,  on  European  railways,  there  are  some  very 
appropriate  remarks  on  the  subject  of  drainage,  con- 
trasting foreign  and  American  railways  in  this 
respect.  They  go  to  show  the  superiority  of  the 
English  practice  over  the  American.*  Drainage  is 

*  Though  I  approve  of  Messrs.  Colburn  and  Holley's  remark? 
on  the  subject  of  drainage,  I  must  protest  against  some  of  their 
statements  of  facts.  They  state  the  width  of  cutting  on  the  Hudson 
River  Railway  at  16  feet  for  single  and  26  feet  for  double  track ; 
whereas,  the  fact  is,  26  feet  for  single  and  40  feet  for  double  track 
in  earth-work,  exclusive  of  side  slopes.  I  notice  other  errors  iu 
relation  to  that  railway.  I  refer  to  the  section  between  New  York 
and  Poughkeepsie,  which  was  constructed  under  my  supervision, 
but  do  not  know  the  dimensions  of  this  work  between  Pough- 
keepsie and  Albany. 


78  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

a  feature  in  this  kind  of  work  that  should  never  be 
lost  sight  of  by  the  engineer,  whether  he  is  con 
Btructing  new  work  or  supervising  a  railway  in 
operation. 

The  embankments  or  fillings  required  in  grounds 
that  are  below  the  grade  level  are  not  usually  diffi- 
cult works,  as  to  the  mode  of  execution.  Where 
the  level  of  the  natural  surface  is  not  more  than 
five  feet  below  the  grade  level,  the  perishable  mat- 
ter should  be  removed  from  the  base  of  the  bank. 
For  greater  heights  it  is  often  expedient  to  remove 
the  coarser  kinds,  and  especially  such  as  would 
injure  the  early  consolidation  of  the  embankment. 
In  low  banks,  from  one  to  four  feet  in  height,  and  all 
that  may  require  side  drains,  the  first  material 
should  be  taken  from  the  side  ditches,  so  far  as  they 
may  afford  it  of  suitable  quality,  or  that  sufficiently 
free  from  vegetable  matter.  By  judicious  manage- 
ment in  such  cases,  the  most  effective  drainage  may 
be  secured  at  small  expense.  If  the  ordinary  width 
of  ditches  does  not  furnish  sufficient  material  for  the 
embankments,  they  should  be  laid  out  and  cut  such 
additional  widths  as  may  be  necessary,  keeping  an 
eye  to  the  most  efficient  drainage.  The  extent  of 
this  will  be  controlled  by  circumstances ;  as  a  sur- 
plus from  cuttings,  or  more  convenient  source  for 
borrowing,  where  no  more  width  need  be  given  the? 


GRADING.  79 

side  ditches  than  may  be  required  for  good  draining. 
So  far  as  the  surface  of  the  country  will  permit  the 
grade  line  to  be  established  at  two  or  three  feet 
above  the  natural  surface  of  the  ground,  it  is  the 
most  favorable  for  the  construction  of  a  railway ; 
and  in  laying  out  the  work  in  such  cases,  care  should 
be  given  to  cut  the  material  from  side  ditches,  or 
otherwise  borrowed  for  filling,  in  a  regular  form, 
extending  over  no  more  ground  than  is  necessary 
to  obtain  the  amount  wanted.  The  slovenly,  irre- 
gular manner  in  which  this  is  often  done,  taking 
unnecessary  ground,  and  leaving  bars  and  patches 
that  injure  the  drainage  and  give  a  barbarous, 
untasteful  appearance  to  the  work  and  the  country, 
is  no  credit  to  the  taste,  judgment,  economy  or 
management  of  the  supervising  engineer,  if  there  be 
any  such,  not  controlled  by  the  contractor.  The 
first  resource  for  material  for  filling  after  the  side 
ditches  required  for  drainage  are  exhausted,  should 
be  the  excavation  from  the  prism  of  cuttings.  It 
should  be  the  rule  in  establishing  grades,  to  absorb 
the  excavations  in  the  embankments ;  and  it  will  be 
best,  as  far  as  circumstances  permit,  to  provide  that 
the  excavations  be  rather  short,  and  if  necessary  to 
have  more  material  from  the  cuttings,  to  obtain  the 
balance  by  an  increased  width,  and  thereby  improve 
the  facilities  of  drainage.  So  far  as  this  method  can 


80  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

be  carried  out,  it  gives  the  most  neat  and  finished 
aspect  to  the  work,  avoids  unsightly  spoil-banks, 
gives  the  least  slope-face  to  be  subject  to  the  wash 
of  rains,  and  in  every  way  gives  the  greatest  advan- 
tage for  easy  and  effective  drainage.  If  the  undu- 
lations of  the  natural  surface  be  short,  it  is  not  often 
difficult  for  the  engineer  to  establish  the  grade, 
so  as  substantially  to  secure  this  result,  without 
unreasonable  haulage.  But  if  the  undulations  be 
long  and  rather  heavy,  the  haulage  may  be  long 
and  the  expense  too  great,  and  spoil-banks  must  be 
formed.  It  will  be  better  to  pay  some  additional 
haulage,  rather  than  put  material  into  spoil-banks ; 
and  the  engineer  should  carefully  consider  the 
question.  By  suitable  provision  of  temporary  track, 
where  the  quantity  of  earth  to  be  moved  is  large, 
the  expense  of  moving  may  be  greatly  reduced,  and 
the  cost  of  moving  it  horizontally  a  considerable 
distance  will  be  less  than  to  put  it  into  spoil-bank, 
and  in  most  cases  it  will  be  found  the  best  economy 
to  encounter  the  haulage,  and  put  the  material  into 
embankments.  If  the  side  ditches  and  excavations 
from  the  prism  of  cuttings  do  not  furnish  sufficient 
material  for  the  embankments,  it  must  be  made 
up  by  what  is  termed  borrowing :  i.  e.  taken  from 
grounds  outside  of  the  regular  work.  This  should 
be  done  with  as  much  care  in  reference  to  form  a. 


GRADING.  81 

circumstances  may  permit,  so  as  to  do  no  unneces- 
sary damage  to  the  lands  by  waste  or  disfiguration. 
By  a  little  attention  to  this,  much  dissatisfaction 
to  landowners  will  be  avoided,  and  neatness  in  the 
work  secured,  without  sacrifice  of  sound  economy. 

The  best  mode  of  building  an  embankment,  in 
order  to  secure  early  and  regular  consolidation,  is  to 
carry  the  material  on  by  carts  and  wagons,  laying  it 
over  the  surface  in  regular  courses  of  six  to  twelve 
inches.  If  the  material  be  lumpy  (as  is  very  often 
the  case),  the  feet  of  the  horses  and  wheels  of  the 
vehicles  will  break  it  down  and  compact  it,  and 
thereby  secure  an  even  and  early  consolidation. 
"Where  the  material  is  within  carting  distance,  this 
course  can  be  easily  adopted,  and  is  of  great  advan- 
tage in  securing  early  stability  to  the  road-bed.  If 
it  be  necessary  to  haul  the  material  by  a  railway,  this 
cannot  be  done  ;  as  it  must  be  dumped  from  the  cars 
standing  on  the  grade  levels  and  forms  a  looser  bank 
than  any  other  mode,  not  excepting  that  by  the  bar- 
row, for  in  this  case,  though  not  effecting  consolida- 
tion in  the  process,  the  material  may  be  laid  on  in 
regular  courses,  and  by  exposure  to  the  air  and  rains 
acquires  more  compactness  and  regularity  of  firm- 
ness in  the  progress  of  the  work,  than  that  done  by 
cars.  It  is  apparent  that  according  to  the  mode  of 
construction  and  time  for  consolidation  during  the 

4* 


82  KAUWAY    PROPERTY. 

progress  of  the  work,  allowance  ghould  be  made  in 
the  height  and  top  width  of  the  bank,  to  provide  for 
settling.  This  can  only  be  done  on  the  judgment 
of  the  engineer,  whose  experience  must  be  the 
guide,  as  to  how  much  will  be  necessary  to  secure 
the  proper  height  and  width  after  consolidation. 
In  addition  to  the  waste  by  shrinkage  or  settlement, 
the  banks  will  lose  by  the  wash  of  heavy  rains, 
until  by  compactness  and  a  covering  of  vegetation 
they  may  be  able  to  resist  this  influence.  For  as  in 
cuttings,  insufficient  dimensions  in  the  banks  will 
cause  much  after-work,  which  is  always  done  at 
increased  cost  after  the  railway  is  put  in  operation. 

The  slopes  of  cuttings  and  embankments  may 
vary  in  different  soils,  but  rarely  should  be  less 
than  one  and  a  half  horizontal  to  one  vertical, 
unless  there  be  walling  or  other  artificial  means 
to  support  them. 

Embankments  on  soft  marshy  grounds  require 
much  attention.  If  the  formation  of  the  adjacent 
country  permit  it,  the  grade  should  be  brought  as 
near  the  level  of  the  marsh  as  will  admit  suitable 
drainage.  If  the  marsh  can  be  drained  only  a  few 
feet,  it  will  improve  its  capacity  to  bear  the  railway 
trains.  The  object  of  reducing  the  grade  in  such 
cases  is  to  avoid  the  weight  of  bank,  leaving  as  near 
as  possible  its  total  strength  for  the  support  of 


GRADING.  83 

trains.  After  such  improvement  by  draining  us 
may  be  practicable,  it  will  usually  be  necessary  to 
do  something  to  form  a  broad  base  for  the  support 
of  the  road-bed.  Fascines,  or  small  sapling  trees, 
from  half  an  inch  to  one  inch  in  diameter,  made  up 
in  bundles  of  six  to  eight  inches  in  diameter,  and 
eight  to  ten  feet  long,  have  been  regarded  as  the 
best  means  of  securing  a  broad  and  equal-bearing 
base.  The  mode  of  laying  them  is  across  the  track, 
breaking  joints  and  compacting  them  together,  so  as 
to  cover  a  width  corresponding  to  the  nature  of 
the  marsh — usually  ^about  sixteen  feet  for  single 
track.  If  well  put  in,  they  form  a  mass  that  in 
most  cases  is  of  sufficient  strength ;  they  fit  well 
and  uniformly  on  the  marshy  soil,  and  being  elas- 
tic, are  better  than  a  foundation  of  more  rigid 
material.  Other  methods  may  answer  a  useful 
purpose,  as  a  course  of  trees,  five  to  ten  inches  in 
diameter,  laid  across  the  track,  and  closely  chincked 
by  a  smaller  and  shorter  course,  under  the  road 
bed.  Courses  of  plank  may  be  put  down,  taking 
care  to  have  an  extra  course  of  shorter  plank  under 
the  road  bed,  so  as  to  diffuse  the  pressure  on  the 
course  first  laid.  Longitudinal  sleepers  for  a  sup- 
port to  the  cross  sleepers  of  the  track  may  be  bene- 
ficially adopted  in  some  cases,  to  further  diffuse  the 
pressure  on  the  foundation.  It  must  be  kept  in 


84:  KAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

mind  that  any  plan  depending  on  the  crust,  or 
upper  surface  of  the  marsh,  must  be  liable  to  some 
degree  of  uncertainty,  and-  great  care  in  the  exami- 
nation is  necessary,  in  order  to  determine  whethei 
there  is  sufficient  substance  to  support  the  railway. 
The  marsh  may  be  too  soft ;  if  not  on  the  surface, 
at  some  point  below,  which  is  sometimes  more  filled 
with  water,  and  softer  than  the  surface,  and  by 
yielding  under  pressure,  causes  the  crust  to  break 
in.  The  surface  of  a  marsh  sometimes,  by  the 
growth  for  ages  of  aquatic  plants,  acquires  a  con- 
siderable degree  of  firmness,  while  the  sub-stratum 
is  very  soft,  and  so  intermixed  with  water,  that  it  is 
easily  displaced  by  pressure  on  the  surface.  This  may 
generally  be  ascertained  by  careful  soundings,  noting 
the  pressure  required  to  force  the  iron  sounding-rod 
at  different  depths  as  it  passes  through  the  marsh. 

By  a  process  essentially  similar  to  that  first 
described  (by  fascines),  the  Liverpool  and  Manches- 
ter Kail  way,  in  England,  was  carried  about  four 
miles  across  the  celebrated  "  Chat  Moss,"  which 
has  been  represented  as  a  very  soft,  spongy  marsh, 
but  not  as  soft  as  some  we  have  had  to  con- 
tend with  in  this  country.  It  was  susceptible  of 
improvement  by  ditching  ;  and  after  the  drainage  it 
received  from  the  railway  works,  a  large  portion 
was  reduced  to  cultivation.  In  1850,  I  saw  hun 


GRADING.  85 

drcds  of  acres  of  nearly  matured  wheat,  barley  and 
oats,  of  luxuriant  growth,  waving  on  each  side  of 
the  railway.  This  proved  the  marsh  to  have  had  a 
good  degree  of  substance,  which,  being  consolidated 
by  drainage,  has,  with  the  aid  of  fascines,  supported 
a  heavy  railway  traffic  for  over  thirty  years. 
George  Stephenson,  Esq.,  the  engineer  of  this 
work,  showed  great  boldness  and  self-reliance  in 
the  undertaking,  and  no  doubt  had  many  anxieties 
during  the  progress  as  to  whether  or  not  it  would 
answer  the  purpose,  and  is  eminently  entitled  to 
the  credit  of  success.  But  it  would  not  be  safe  to 
conclude  that  all  marshes  could  be  successfully 
treated  by  the  same  process ;  at  the  same  time,  it 
should  lead  the  engineer  that  meets  this  kind  of 
obstacle  to  the  most  thorough  examination  to  ascer- 
tain the  probability  of  his  being  able  to  cross  a 
marsh  by  works  that  may  be  supported  on  its  sur 
face,  as  this  is  by  far  the  least  expensive. 

If  the  country  surrounding  a  marsh  is  too  high 
above  it  to  permit  bringing  the  grade  level  near 
its  surface,  and  a  heavy  embankment  is  required  to 
carry  it  across,  there  will  be  little  probability  that 
the  crust  will  sustain  the  weight.  If  the  soundings 
show  the  marsh  to  be  shallow,  it  may  be  filled  in  the 
usual  way,  by  which  the  material  will  force  the  soft 
mud,  until  it  finds  support  on  the  solid  substance  bty 


86  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

low.  But  if  there  be  found  great  depth  of  vegetable 
matter,  it  will  be  important  to  conduct  the  filling 
so  as  to  make  the  marsh  material  available  as  far  as 
practicable,  and  thereby  reduce  the  quantity.  The 
soft,  vegetable  matter  and  fine  mud,  fully  saturated 
with  water,  will  yield  laterally  before  the  bank 
filling,  and  the  surface  of  the  marsh  on  each  side  will 
rise  from  the  pressure  of  the  solid  earth  filling,  as  it 
passes  toward  the  bottom  of  the  marsh.  If  the 
marsh  material  can  be  kept  under  the  filling,  instead 
of  being  pushed  aside,  it  will  be  compressed  until 
it  is  capable  of  sustaining  the  weight  of  filling ;  and 
though  it  will  be  much  reduced  in  bulk,  it  will  be 
an  important  saving  in  expense.  A  narrow  bank, 
dumped  on  a  soft  marsh,  acts  like  a  wedge,  on  the 
semi-aqueous  material,  to  force  it  laterally,  and 
displaces  horizontally  what  it  is  desirable  to  com- 
press. To  guard  against  this,  make  the  base  of  the 
filling  wide  in  the  commencement,  and  fill  it  evenly 
on  the  outer  parts,  keeping  the  centre  of  filling  be- 
low the  sides  as  much  as  convenient.  According 
to  the  texture  of  the  marsh,  this  floor  of  filling 
should  be  extended  beyond  the  width  required  for 
the  filling,  ten  to  twenty  feet,  and  carried  up  as  far  as 
may  appear  necessary  to  prevent  the  marsh  rising 
outside  the  bank,  but  not  to  such  weight  as  will 
break  the  crust  of  the  marsh,  unless  the  latter  is 


GRADING.  87 

very  soft.  This  extension  will  tend  to  hold  the 
marsh  material"  in  place,  and  cause  it  to  settle 
under  the  filling,  instead  of  moving  it  laterally, 
and  thus  secure  the  compression  of  the  marsh 
material  under  the  bank  filling.  In  the  process, 
care  will  be  required  to  carry  the  outsides  of  filling, 
with  the  extension  filling,  forward  of  the  pressure 
on  the  central  part,  so  that  the  soft  earth  will  move 
from  the  sides  toward  the  centre,  and  finally  the 
central  filling  will  compress  it  vertically  instead  of 
laterally.  The  compression  may  reduce  the  bulk 
one  half  or  more,  but  still  it  will  be  an  important 
saving  in  the  filling  that  would  otherwise  be 
required  in  the  base,  and  the  bank  will  come  to  a 
rest  much  sooner  than  if  it  is  so  formed  as  to  force 
the  marsh  material  outward.  The  plan  of  spread- 
ing the  bank,  if  the  marsh  is  not  very  soft,  and  thus 
guarding  against  lateral  movement,  will  reduce  the 
general  sinking  of  the  bank,  and  in  some  cases  will 
prevent  the  breaking  of  the  crust,  and  save  much 
expense.  The  engineer  cannot  be  too  cautious  in 
examining  by  thorough  soundings  of  the  marshes 
in  his  way.  Sometimes  boring  may  be  advan- 
tageous ;  but  in  general  a  good  sounding-rod  will 
enable  him  to  judge  of  its  character.  In  the  haste 
that  often  prevails  in  commencing  the  construction 
of  railways,  and  from  the  fact  that  marshes  only 


88  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

occur  occasionally,  this  preliminary  examination  ia 
often  very  imperfect,  and  the  evil  is  not  understood 
until  the  work  has  made  considerable  progress ;  the 
crust  often  sustaining  a  considerable  height  of  bank, 
and  then  yielding  suddenly,  the  bank  wholly  dis- 
appears, leaving  only  water  to  mark  its  track.  At 
this  stage  of  the  work,  if  the  marsh  be  deep  and 
of  considerable  length,  it  may,  and  probably  will 
be,  the  best  plan  to  proceed  at  once  with  exten- 
sion banks  on  each  side,  so  as  to  arrest  the  lateral 
movement  as  much  as  possible.  If  they  be  short 
and  not  very  deep,  it  will  probably  be  best  to  con- 
tinue the  filling  as  begun,  which  will  result  in  build- 
ing a  bank  from  near  the  foundation  of  the  marsh. 

The  width  of  embankment  has  often  received  too 
little  attention,  hardly  forming  in  some  cases  suffi- 
cient support,  when  new,  for  the  cross  sleepers,  and 
the  deterioration  of  a  fresh-made  and  insufficient 
bank,  by  settling  and  the  wash  of  rains,  will  re- 
quire constant  repairs  to  maintain  the  track  iii 
operation.  After  allowance  for  settling,  the  top 
width  of  bank  should  extend  not  less  than  three 
feet  beyond  the  end  of  cross  sleepers  on  each  side, 
to  give  firm  support  to  the  track.  Care  should  be 
taken  to  give  an  inclination  on  the  top,  from  the 
centre  each  way,  to  carry  the  falling  water  quickly 
to  the  sides,  and  prevent  it  as  much  as  possible 


GRADING.  89 

from  sinking  into  the  road-bed.  With  nine  feet  cross 
sleepers  this  gives  a  bank  of  15  feet  width,  or 
about  five  feet  outside  of  the  outer  rail  on  common 
gauge,  arid  may  be  considered  sufficient  for  banks 
raised  only  a  few  feet  above  the  natural  surface. 
This  width,  however,  is  not  sufficient  to  afford  ade- 
quate protection  against  a  car  or  engine  that  has  left 
the  track  from  running  off  the  bank ;  nor  is  this 
important  on  low  banks,  not  of  sufficient  height  to 
upset  the  engine  or  coach.  The  occurrence  of  rail- 
way vehicles  leaving  the  track  is  comparatively 
rare;  still  it  does  occur,  and  at  times  on  an  embank- 
ment, the  car  or  engine  passes  over  the  margin 
and  upsets  on  its  slope,  doing  much  damage  to  per- 
sons and  property.  According  to  the  height  of 
embankment  and  the  exposure  in  this  respect, 
attention  should  be  given  to  secure  reasonable 
safety.  On  the  Hudson  River  Railway  between 
New  York  and  Poughkeepsie,  the  width  established 
in  the  construction  for  the  river  side  of  the  track 
was  ten  feet  outside  the  outer  rail.  The  object  was 
to  prevent  a  car,  on  leaving  the  track,  from  falling 
into  the  river.  Unless  the  train  is  propelled  with 
unusual  force,  this  is  believed  to  be  sufficient  to 
prevent  it  from  passing  off  the  bank  ;  and  after  ten 
years  operation  on  that  line,  I  have  not  heard  of  an 
instance  occurring  over  the  ten  feet  margin.  It  is 


90  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

obvious  that  this  question  depends  on  the  speed 
of  trains,  and  the  curvature  and  condition  of  the 
railway  and  machinery.  Near  all  bridges  of  con- 
siderable height,  a  margin  of  ten  feet  is  as  little  as 
can  be  regarded  reasonably  safe ;  and  to  give  proper 
security  in  this  respect,  all  banks  of  sufficient 
height  to  upset  a  car  in  passing  off  the  track, 
should  have  a  margin  of  seven  feet,  and  if  of  great 
height  or  otherwise  exposed  to  great  hazard  in  this 
respect,  they  should  have  a  margin  of  ten  feet.  It 
is  well  known  that  little  regard  is  paid  to  this  fea- 
ture in  our  railways ;  and  for  the  most  part  they 
have  experienced  only  occasional  damage.  Still 
serious  accidents  have  occurred  for  the  want  of 
adequate  marginal  width,  demanding  the  exercise 
of  greater  care  in  guarding  by  all  reasonable  pre- 
caution against  their  recurrence.  The  expense  is 
the  objection  to  this  view  of  marginal  widths,  and 
in  very  high  banks,  will  be  considerable ;  especially 
if  the  material  for  filling  is  not  convenient ;  and 
want  of  funds  will  be  likely  (as  it  has  done)  to 
induce  the  narrow  and  less  safe  margin ;  but  the 
instances  that  often  occur,  where  material  may  be 
moved  at  moderate  cost  for  the  safe  and  proper 
width,  should  be  improved  to  give  as  much  safety 
as  may  be  practicable  in  this  respect.  On  railways 
of  moderate  traffic,  where  high  speed  is  not  re- 


GRADING.  91 

quired,  a  margin  of  five  feet  will  generally  do  j  ery 
well,  and  as  traffic  and  speed  increase,  it  should  be 
enlarged  in  a  corresponding  degree,  for  all  ligh 
and  hazardous  banks. 

In  carrying  a  railway  through  a  forest  of  h(  avy 
timber,  all  trees  that  by  falling  would  reach  the 
track,  should  be  felled  and  cleared  off.  The  best 
method  is  to  clear  all  the  timber  within  100  feet 
of  the  rail ;  this  distance  will  ordinarily  prote<  t  the 
track  from  the  danger  of  falling  trees,  and  by  y^en- 
ing  the  railway  to  the  sun,  be  of  great  ben<  f  i  to 
the  track. 


BAIL  WAY   PROPERTY. 


CHAPTEK  YI. 

BRIDGES   AND   CULVERTS. 

UNDER  this  head  may  be  classed  such  works  as 
are  necessary  to  provide  for  the  passage  of  water, 
that,  by  natural  streams  or  artificial  channels,  flows 
across  the  railway.  The  term  culvert  is  used  for 
works  on  small  streams,  and  bridges  for  large  ones. 
No  exact  line  seems  to  have  been  settled,  to  deter- 
mine the  dimensions  that  constitutes  the  extent  of 
opening  for  a  culvert,  and  where  a  bridge  begins ; 
but  the  true  culvert  is  usually  applied  to  arched 
openings  not  exceeding  20  feet,  and  covered  by  an 
embankment.  The  same  style  of  work,  however,  is 
sometimes  carried  to  openings  of  30  feet,  when  the 
parapets  are  merely  retaining  walls  for  the  em- 
bankment over  the  arch,  and  may  with  propriety 
be  styled  culverts. 

There  is  no  material  for  culverts  equal  to  sound, 
durable  stone.  In  a  climate  of  moderate  tempera- 
ture, good  hard-burnt  brick  will  answer  very  well ; 
but  where  severe  frosts  act  on  the  structure,  stone 
is  much  better.  So  far,  therefore,  as  the  formation 


BRIDGES   AND   CULVERTS.  93 

of  the  country  will  permit  (and  a  location  that 
makes  suitable  provision  for  drainage  will  usually 
permit  it),  there  should  be  provided  room  for  arched 
culverts.  "Where  only  a  small  opening  of  one  and 
a  half  to  two  feet  is  required,  or  even  two  and  a 
half  feet,  and  sound  blocks  of  durable  stone  can 
be  had  for  covering,  they  may  be  used  advanta- 
geously instead  of  arches.  If  such  covering  stone 
cannot  be  had,  cast  iron  may  be  used,  and  is  con- 
sidered second  only  to  stone  ;  but  if  durable  stone, 
and  a  good  article  of  hydraulic  cement  can  be  had, 
it  is  best  to  adopt  stone-work,  either  on  the  square 
form  or  arches,  as  the  material  may  require.  With 
stone  of  fair,  natural  beds,  laid  up  in  the  style  of 
rough  hammered  work,  in  hydraulic  cement,  cul- 
verts may  be  made  that  will  stand  indefinitely,  in 
this  way  they  will  be  of  moderate  cost  for  work- 
manship. If  the  stone  were  squared  and  dressed 
to  courses,  the  work  would  be  more  stable ;  but 
this  expense  is  not  often  necessary  in  railway  cul- 
verts, if  a  bank  of  several  feet  in  depth  of  earth 
lies  on  the  arch,  and  between  it  and  the  superstruc- 
ture of  the  railway.  Care  should  be  taken  to  place 
the  floor  of  the  culvert  low  enough  to  give  full 
freedom  to  the  drainage  of  the  water  course,  and  if 
the  foundation  is  of  wood,  so  low  that  water  will 
always  cover  it.  Wood  will  not  answer  for  a  foun- 


94  RAILWAY   PROPERTY. 

datiou  that  is  dry  a  portion  of  the  year.  If  liable 
to  this  contingency,  the  foundation  should  be  of 
stone,  which  may  be  made  by  forming  a  pavement 
across  between  the  abutment  walls,  as  a  floor  for 
the  water  course,  and  should  be  in  the  form  of  an 
inverted  arch,  which  is  more  firm  in  itself,  and 
greatly  improves  the  supporting  foundation  of  the 
abutments.  If  the  situation  does  not  admit  of 
timber  foundations,  it  will  not  answer  to  use  wood 
for  sheet-piling,  and  stone-masonry  must  be  substi- 
tuted. The  foundations  for  culverts  should  be  per- 
fectly solid,  or  so  as  to  give  adequate  support,  and 
if  to  support  a  bank  of  great  height,  formed  in  the 
usual  mode  of  slope  sides,  care  should  be  taken  to 
give  strength  of  foundation  in  proportion  to  the 
pressure  it  is  to  bear,  so  that  if  any  settlement  take 
place,  it  may  be  uniform.  It  most  generally  hap- 
pens, that  a  good  and  sufficient  foundation  may  be 
formed  on  the  natural  ground  ;  the  light  and  yield- 
ing surface  being  removed  with  other  excavations 
required  to  reach  the  necessary  depth  for  drainage : 
but  if  such  is  not  found,  bearing  piles  should  be 
driven  to  such  a  depth  as  may  be  required  to 
secure  stability.  The  foundations  of  bridges  and 
culverts  are  exposed  to  injury  from  floods,  and 
should  be  thoroughly  protected  in  this  respect.  In 
all  cases  where  the  water  is  liable  to  get  under  the 


BRIDGES    AND   CULVKRT8.  95 

foundation,  sheet-piling  should  be  put  down  ;  this 
will  generally  be  necessary  at  the  head  of  the  cul- 
vert, and  in  some  cases  a  course  will  be  required  at 
about  one-fourth  to  one-third  of  the  distance  below 
the  head,  which  should  be  carried  up  close  to  the 
rear  "of  abutment  walls,  or  what  is  better,  a  wing 
buttress  of  masonry  in  connection  with  and  above 
this  sheet-piling  and  projecting  about  three  feet 
beyond  the  rear  face  of  abutment  walls,  and  carried 
over  the  crown  of  the  arch,  rising  about  two  feet 
above  it,  so  as  to  effectually  cut  off  any  water  that 
might  find  a  passage  along  the  rear  of  the  masonry, 
and  between  it  and  the  earth  filling,  which  is  liable 
to  happen  when  floods  raise  the  water  at  the  head 
so  as  to  give  considerable  pressure.  Sheet-piling 
should  be  very  thoroughly  put  down  at  the  foot  of 
the  culvert,  to  prevent  undermining  by  the  action 
of  the  water  as  it  leaves  the  culvert ;  in  many  cases 
it  will  be  best  to  substitute  a  wall  at  this  end  for  the 
sheet-piling,  sinking  the  foundation  as  low  as  cir- 
cumstances may  require,  to  place  it  below  the 
power  of  disturbance  from  the  discharging  water. 
The  filling  of  earth  next  the  culvert  should  be  done 
with  a  view  to  make  a  water-tight  connection,  and 
not  with  sticks,  stumps,  stones,  and  earth  indiscrimi- 
nately, as  is  too  often  done.  The  failure  of  culverts 
often  arises  from  currents  of  water  getting  under 


96  RAILWAY   PROPERTY. 

their  foundation,  finding  a  passage  behind  the 
walls,  or  from  undermining  at  the  lower  end ; 
hence  will  be  seen  the  importance  of  carefully 
attending  to  these  details,  the  neglect  of  which  will 
very  probably  be  followed  by  the  loss  of  the  cul- 
verts, and  much  additional  damage.  It  is  always 
well  to  place  foundations  low,  especially  if  they  do 
not  rest  on  bearing-piles  or  rock  ;  by  this  course,  all 
foundations  in  permanent  streams,  however  small, 
may  be  covered  at  all  times  with  water,  thereby 
protecting  any  timber  in  the  work  from  decay. 

It  not  unfrequently  happens,  that  suitable  stone 
for  culverts  cannot  be  had  at  reasonable  expense, 
at  the  time  the  railway  is  in  construction,  and 
timber  must  be  used  until  transportation  by  the 
railway  afford  the  means  to  procure  it.  In  such 
cases,  and  if  the  stone  can  be  procured  after  the 
railway  is  open,  the  timber,  or  small  bridge,  that 
may  be  temporarily  adopted,  should  be  made  with 
sufficient  opening  to  allow  the  culvert  to  be  put  in, 
and  the  earth  filled  over  it,  without  disturbing  the 
traffic  of  the  railway,  which  may  easily  be  done 
If  the  foundation  be  such  as  to  require  bearing- 
piles,  it  will  be  best  to  put  them  in  before  the 
timber  bridge  is  built,  as  it  will  be  more  convenient 
to  drive  them  before  than  after  the  railway  is  in 
operation.  As  soon  after  the  railway  is  put  in 


BRIDGES   AND   CULVERTS.  97 

operation  as  circumstances  will  permit,  the  work 
of  collecting  materials  and  putting  in  the  stone 
culverts  should  be  proceeded  with ;  commencing 
with  those,  that  from  any  cause  may  be  less  safe, 
and  carrying  forward  the  work  as  fast  as  economy 
will  permit  so  as  at  least  to  secure  completion  before 
any  portion  of  the  timber  may  fail. 

To  construct  culverts  of  the  character  here  con- 
templated, the  mason-work  must  be  well  done,  the 
stone  well  shaped  and  laid  in  good  bond,  and  the 
joints  full  bedded  in  hydraulic  mortar.  If  the  en- 
gineer is  careless  on  this  point,  the  work  will  proba- 
bly be  poor.  A  mason  is  very  apt  to  devote  his 
attention  mainly  to  the  outside  face  of  his  work, 
leaving  the  interior  poorly  bonded,  and  the  mortar 
joints  not  half  filled,  and  as  far  as  filled,  done  with 
untempered  mortar  of  inferior  materials.  It  is  not 
difficult  to  find  samples  of  pretended  mason-work 
that  offer  no  good  reason  for  substituting  it  for  tim- 
ber-work. In  such  cases  the  engineer  is  at  fault, 
and  not  the  principle  of  stone  culverts.  There  is 
very  small  comparative  difference  in  the  expense  of 
good  and  poor  masonry,  and  the  engineer  who 
allows  the  latter,  cannot  be  justified  on  professional 
or  any  other  grounds. 

Care  should  be  taken  in  filling  a  bank  over  a 
culvert,  to  load  it  equally  on  each  side  ;  where  it  is 

5 


98  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

done  by  a  head  bank,  as  is  usual  when  the  material 
is  brought  on  by  a  railway,  there  is  great  danger 
of  pushing  the  culvert  out  of  form,  if  counterweight 
be  not  brought  to  support  it. 

There  have  been  many  instances  of  failure  in 
railway  culverts,  and  this  has  led  some  persons  to 
suppose  they  are  unsafe,  and  that  it  is  better  to 
adopt  timber  bridges.  It  can  hardly  be  said  that  this 
substitute  more  rarely  fails  than  culverts  of  stone. 
That  there  has  been  a  good  deal  of  failure  in  both 
is  beyond  question.  But  I  have  rarely  known  a 
well  built  culvert,  with  sufficient  water-way,  to  fail, 
though  instances  have  occurred  where  the  water, 
during  floods,  has  risen  at  the  head  from  ten  to  fifteen 
feet  high.  The  real  difficulty  is.  that  the  culverts  of 
late  years  have  been  to  a  great  extent  poorly  built, 
imperfectly  founded  and  protected,  and  often  of  ina- 
dequate dimensions  for  water-way.  A  stone  culvert, 
like  any  work  of  human  hands,  may  fail  without 
fault,  but  well-built  stone  culverts  are  works  of  per- 
manent and  reliable  character — more  safe  for  the  pas- 
sage of  trains,  and  almost  free  from  expense  of 
repairs ;  but  if  the  railway  company  have  not  the 
skill  necessary  in  their  employment  to  construct 
them  properly,  it  will  be  better  for  them  to  procure 
it,  and  not  trust  works  of  this  importance  to  incom- 
petent men. 


BRIDGES   AND   CULVERTS.  99 

In  this  country  bridges  are  mostly  constructed  of 
wood  ;  in  England,  brick  is  very  extensively  used, 
and  in  that  mild  climate  may  answer  a  good  pur- 
pose. So  long  as  bricks  continue  durable,  they  give 
similar  stability  to  stone  ;  but  in  the  northern  States 
of  our  country  they  cannot  be  recommended.  In 
any  situation  where  good  building  stone  may  be 
had,  it  admits  a  cheaper  structure  than  brick ;  it 
has  fewer  joints  and  is  less  exposed  to  fracture. 
Timber  is  generally  used  for  its  cheapness,  and  the 
facility  it  affords  for  rapid  construction.  Such 
bridges  are  sometimes  constructed  with  stone  abut- 
ments and  piers,  but  often  with  frame-work  of  the 
same  materials.  It  cannot  be  denied  that  in  many 
cases  in  this  country,  considerations  of  expense 
absolutely  control  this  question,  and  leave  the  engi- 
neer no  choice.  It  is  nevertheless  a  matter  of  im 
portance,  both  in  regard  to  the  permanent  economy 
of  a  railway,  and  of  its  safety  in  use.  Timber  has 
only  a  moderate  degree  of  durability,  when  exposed 
to  the  vicissitudes  of  our  climate ;  and  efforts  for  its 
preservation  in  bridges  in  this  country  have  not 
been  attended  with  any  great  success.  Housing 
has  proved  very  useful  for  bridges  on  common 
roads,  but  the  danger  of  destruction  from  fire  by 
locomotive  engines  renders  this  form  of  security 


100  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

on  railways  less  desirable.  If  a  bridge  is  covered, 
the  inside  that  is  exposed  to  fire  from  the  engines 
should  be  kept  well  covered  with  a  wash  of  lime 
and  salt,  as  a  protection  of  much  value  against  fire. 
Covering  the  top  with  a  decking  has  proved  of 
doubtful  utility,  and  many  are  now  left  to  the 
free  action  of  the  elements. 

The  length  of  time  timber  will  last  in  a  bridge, 
especially  an  open  one,  is  quite  uncertain,  and  there 
is  danger  that  it  will  be  trusted  too  long  for  safety. 
The  first  decay  will  be  in  the  joints  of  framing,  and 
in  the  interior  of  the  scantling ;  this  may  be  to  a 
serious  extent,  while  all  exposed  to  observation 
appears  sound  and  safe.  The  traveller  on  the  rail- 
way cannot  examine  the  bridge — he  must  depend 
on  the  railway  agent,  under  the  proprietary  interest 
in  the  question  ;  and  the  agent  may  be  satisfied  with 
the  exterior,  or  from  other  cause  neglect  the  proper 
examination,  until  some  train  falls  through,  when  it 
will  be  sadly  certain  that  it  should  not  have  been 
trusted  so  long.  I  have  seen  the  record  of  four 
serious  disasters  the  past  year  from  the  giving  way 
of  bridges,  causing  the  loss  of  fifteen  lives,  and 
injuring  forty-seven  persons.  Others  less  serious  to 
life  have  been  attended  with  great  loss  of  property. 
The  present  year  (1859)  will  not  be  less  disastrous, 
judging  from  its  history  thus  far. 


BRIDGES   AND   CULVERTS.  101 

A  large  portion  of  the  bridging  that  has  been 
built  with  timber  spans,  might  be  made  with  stone 
arches  not  exceeding  forty  feet  span,  and  many  of 
these  with  less  span.  Where  abutments  of  stone 
are  made,  as  retaining  walls  for  the  bank,  and  to 
support  the  timber  span,  in  such  situations  as  allow 
sufficient  height  for  arching  with  stone,  it  will  often 
be  found  that  stone  arches  may  be  erected  with 
small  additional  expense  over  the  wooden  structure, 
resting  on  stone  abutments  and  piers.  Arches  for 
this  purpose  may  be  substantially  made  with  a  good 
quality  of  building  stone  and  hydraulic  cement  at  a 
moderate  cost.  Dressing  stone  to  courses  is  not  gene- 
rally necessary  for  the  permanence  or  stability  of  the 
work.  Arches  of  unhewn  stone,  with  proper  span- 
drels, have  been  successfully  built  of  seventy-five  feet 
span,  with  rise  of  one-quarter,  for  the  use  of  common 
roads.  I  would  not  recommend  going  to  this  extent 
without  dressing  the  stone  for  a  railway  bridge,  but 
there  is  not  the  least  difficulty  in  carrying  them  to 
fifty  feet  with  one-quarter  to  one-third  rise  according 
to  quality  of  stone.  When  materials  can  be  had  that 
are  suitable  for  abutments  and  piers,  they  can  gene- 
rally be  found  sufficient  for  the  sheeting  of  an  arch. 
In  making  arches  of  unhewn  stone,  a  common  error 
Bhould  be  avoided — namely,  dressing  the  ring  or 
heading  courses ;  which  not  settling  with  the  rest  of 


102  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

the  arch,  is  very  likely,  in  arches  of  considerable 
size,  to  split  off  and  separate  from  the  main  body. 
This  is  mostly  done  for  appearance,  and  is  sadly  at 
the  expense  of  stability.  The  heading  should  be  of 
the  same  workmanship  as  the  body  of  the  arch,  giv- 
ing it  no  more  care  than  would  be  given  to  the  face 
of  an  undressed,  wall. 

There  are  comparatively  few  situations  where 
arches  of  more  than  50  feet  are  required,  to  provide 
sufficient  opening  for  the  water-way.  If  one  arch 
is  not  enough,  two  or  more  may  be  provided. 
Small  arches  are  less  expensive  for  the  span  they 
provide  than  large  ones ;  and  hence  it  is  often  bet- 
ter to  make  two  arches  of  equal  aggregate  span  than 
one,  to  provide  a  given  opening ;  and  they  require 
less  height.  The  size  of  the  opening  for  water-way 
will  depend  much  on  the  exposure  to  obstruction 
from  drift-wood  or  ice ;  and  it  will  require  careful 
observation  to  settle  this  on  a  safe  basis.  It  is  not 
often  serious  on  small  streams ;  but  for  large  streams, 
exposed  to  heavy  floating  ice  and  drift-wood,  the 
safety  of  the  structure  will  depend  materially  on 
the  proper  disposition  of  this  question.  The  open- 
ing that  may  be  necessary  to  give  free  passage  to 
the  water,  is  the  first  question  to  be  considered  in 
planning  a  bridge  or  a  culvert.  It  should  be  suf- 
cient  to  pass  any  floating  substance  likely  to  be 


BRIDGES    AND    CULVERTS.  103 

brought  by  the  current  to  the  bridge.  On  this  point 
it  is  best  to  err  on  the  safe  side,  in  order  to  be  pre- 
pared for  that  great  flood,  more  weighty  than  any 
previously  known  by  the  "  oldest  inhabitant."  A 
water-way  barely  adequate  to  pass  a  flood  will 
severely  try  the  foundation  ;  and  it  should  be  kept 
in  view,  that  occasionally — perhaps  once  in  a  quar- 
ter, or  half  a  century — streams  of  water  are  swollen 
much  beyond  ordinary  floods,  arid  sweep  off  what 
had  been  regarded  as  well  tried  and  safe.  The 
water-way  may  require  two  or  more  spans  to  pro- 
vide sufficient  flow,  but  each  should  be  wide  enough 
to  allow  any  ice  or  drift-wood  that  the  stream  may 
bring  down  to  pass  through  freely,  so  as  not  to  dam 
up  and  obstruct  the  flow  of  water.  In  regard  to 
ice,  if  the  stream  directly  above  the  bridge  is  rapid, 
the  ice  will  be  broken  into  small  pieces,  and  pass 
off  with  little  hazard  of  forming  a  dam  at  the 
bridge ;  or  if  it  be  very  crooked  and  sluggish,  the 
ice  will  be  held  in  its  original  position,  until  it 
becomes  too  weak  to  cause  much  obstruction  in 
passing  the  bridge.  There  are  comparatively  few 
streams  that  would  not  be  safely  secured  against  ice 
or  drift-wood  forming  a  dam,  by  spans  of  50  or  60 
feet;  and  if  more  is  required  to  give  sufficient 
water-way,  the  number  of  spans  can  be  increased 
accordingly.  If  larger  openings  than  60  feet  are 


UiflVE:;.  'ITT 


104  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

required,  and  there  be  sufficient  height,  stone  bridges 
may  be  advantageously  erected,  but  will  require 
more  expensive  workmanship  and  materials. 

The  remarks  in  relation  to  the  masonry  of  cul- 
verts are  applicable  to  that  required  for  bridges. 
For  bridges  of  unhewn  stone,  the  stone  should  be 
larger  in  proportion  to  the  magnitude  of  the  walls 
and  the  pressure  they  may  be  required  to  sustain. 
The  judgment  and  experience  of  the  engineer  must 
decide,  as  to  the  pressure  from  the  height  or  span 
of  the  work  required,  how  far  he  may  with  safety 
adopt  rough  or  unhewn  stone-work.  So  far  as  this 
can  be  done,  it  will  be  much  more  economical  than 
hewn  stone;  and,  as  before  remarked,  it  will  be 
found  in  general  that  by  far  the  greatest  proportion 
of  bridges  may  be  constructed  of  unhewn  stone, 
without  sacrifice  of  any  material  stability.  It 
sometimes  happens  that  the  stone  quarries  that  must 
be  resorted  to  will  furnish  stone  in  such  shape,  that 
it  is  little  more  expensive  to  make  regular  courses 
roughly  hewn  than  rubble- work,  and  in  such  cases 
it  will  be  advisable  to  form  courses  of  uniform  thick- 
ness of  stone  for  the  more  important  features  of 
the  work. 

Stone  arch  bridges  require  more  height,  or  space 
below  the  grade  level,  than  timber ;  and  it  is  to  bo 
considered  whether  or  not  this  can  be  obtained 


BRIDGES   AND   CULVERTS.  105 

without  too  much  sacrifice  in  the  cost  of  grading. 
It  sometimes  occurs  that  the  formation  of  the  ap- 
proaching country,  on  which  the  line  of  railway  is 
laid,  is  low  in  comparison  with  the  bed  of  the  valley 
or  stream  over  which  the  bridge  is  required  to  be 
made,  and  the  most  favorable  grade  for  the  ap- 
proach does  not  give  space  for  the  stream  in  time 
of  floods  under  the  bridge ;  and  the  expense  of  rais- 
ing the  grade  will  sometimes  so  control  this  ques- 
tion, as  to  lead  to  the  adoption  of  timber  or  iron  for 
the  want  of  room  for  arching.  The  grade  should  be 
high  enough  to  be  beyond  the  reach  of  all  floods  in 
the  stream,  and  a  few  feet  additional  is  all  that  is 
necessary  for  arches  of  small  span ;  and  when  this 
can  be  obtained  at  moderate  additional  cost  for  the 
filling,  arches  of  stone  should  be  provided  for.  In 
.examining  the  circumstances  of  grade  with  a  view 
of  ascertaining  what  room  may  be  had  for  arching 
the  bridge  or  culvert,  it  will  be  kept  in  mind,  that 
raising  the  grade  will  improve  the  facilities  for 
drainage,  a  matter  never  to  be  lost  sight  of  in  the 
construction  of  a  railway,  and  will  always  justify 
some  expense  to  improve  it,  even  when  otherwise 
fair. 

It  must  be  conceded,  however,  that  there  are 
situations,  where  a  railway  passes  over  a  flat  coun- 
try, with  shallow  valleys  for  its  streams,  where 

5* 


106  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

timber  or  iron  must  be  used  for  the  spaces  or  spans 
between  the  abutments  and  piers,  for  the  want  of 
room  to  put  in  arches  of  stone ;  but  the  cases  are 
not  comparatively  numerous  in  which  this  may  not 
be  avoided  by  a  j  udicious  management  of  the  grade 
lines.  Cheap  construction  in  the  outset  will  call 
for  low  grades  in  a  flat  country,  but  the  true  and 
permanent  interest  of  the  work  requires  them  to  be 
higher  than  they  generally  are,  both  in  relation  to 
passing  streams  with  safety,  and  to  give  effective 
drainage.  Low  grades,  and  consequent  imperfect 
drainage,  have  been  a  very  prevalent  error  on  the 
railway  constructions  of  this  country.  The  engi- 
neer should  keep  this  in  view,  and  avoid  the  error. 
If  stone  for  bridges  is  not  to  be  had  on  the  line 
of  railway,  then  the  remarks  in  relation  to  culverts 
in  this  respect  will  be  applicable  to  bridges,  namely, 
the  foundations  prepared,  and  the  temporary  timber 
structure  so  constructed,  that  when  materials  can 
be  brought  on,  stone-work  may  be  erected  without 
disturbing  the  operations  of  the  railway. 

When  there  has  not  been  space  enough  for  arches  of 
stone,  as  before  observed,  timber  has  generally  been 
substituted ;  but  this  is  not  indispensable,  as  beams 
of  wrought  iron  may  be  constructed  for  supports 
between  and  resting  on  the  stone  abutments  and 
piers ;  and  if  the  span  is  not  to  exceed  50  or  60 


BRIDGES   AND   CULVERTS  107 

feet,  will  not  be  very  expensive.  Such  beams 
should  be  strong  enough  for  the  service  without 
counter-supports,  in  the  manner  of  a  simple  beam. 
Make  two  beams  of  boiler-plate  iron,  one  for  each 
side  of  the  track,  and  by  rods  from  them  support 
the  cross-beams  on  which  the  rails  of  the  track  lie. 
The  cross-beam  may  be  of  iron,  and  no  timber  used 
in  the  structure,  except  for  the  stringer  on  which 
the  rails  are  laid.  Such  a  structure  will  be  free 
from  the  objection  that  arises  from  the  expansion 
and  contraction  of  iron,  as  the  action  of  the  tempe- 
rature does  not  change  its  character  for  support, 
and  may  easily  be  provided  for.  For  a  short  span, 
not  exceeding  40,  or  perhaps  50  feet,  a  single  sheet 
of  iron,  with  flange  pieces  at  top  and  bottom  to  give 
lateral  stiffness,  and  secured  with  angle  iron,  may 
be  made.  If  the  span  is  greater  than  40  or  50  feet, 
the  beam  should  be  cellular,  having  two  upright 
sides,  and  connected  at  the  top  and  bottom  with 
plates  secured  with  angle  iron.  The  depth  of  beam 
should  be  about  one-tenth  of  the  span,  and  the 
breadth  about  one-sixth  of  the  height.  This  would 
be  a  tubular  beam,  to  which  the  cross-beams  would 
be  attached  as  above  described.  It  has  the  same 
principle  as  the  tubular  bridge ;  it  is  equally  firm 
for  support,  but  the  span  must  not  be  carried  too 
far,  or  beyond  its  means  of  lateral  stiffness.  The 


108  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

objection  to  this  plan  is,  that  the  solid  sheets  in  the 
side  plates  contain  an  unnecessary  amount  of  mate- 
rial. With  sufficient  strength  in  the  upper  and 
lower  chord,  all  that  is  wanted  between  them  is 
what  will  be  sufficient  to  hold  them  firmly  in  posi- 
tion, and  this  may  be  secured  by  a  system  of  brac- 
ing requiring  much  less  material  than  the  side 
sheets.  It  is  however  a  question,  if  the  extra 
workmanship  in  the  bracing  will  not  require  greater 
expense  than  can  be  saved  in  the  material  of  the 
tube,  as  is  claimed  by  Mr.  Eobert  Stephenson. 
Mr.  S.  must  be  regarded  as  high  authority  on  this 
point,  and  should  not  be  disregarded  without 
careful  experiments  that  might  demonstrate  the 
economy  of  a  modification.  There  have  been  some 
experiments  on  the  plan  of  connecting  the  upper 
and  lower  chords  by  bracing,  on  the  New  York 
Central  Railway ;  which,  so  far  as  I  have  been  abls 
to  learn,  has  satisfactorily  stood  the  service  of  trains 
for  some  time ;  but  I  do  not  know  what  difference 
there  has  been  in  the  expense  as  compared  with 
full  sheeted  sides. 

Railways  must  occasionally  be  carried  across 
large  rivers,  that  demand  works  of  a  different 
character  from  what  has  been  contemplated  in  the 
preceding  remarks.  In  some  cases,  circumstances 
render  it  necessary  to  make  a  greater  span  than 


»KIbGE8    AND    CULVERTS.  109 

could  well  be  made  by  stone  arching.  Timber  has 
been  mostly  used  for  such  cases  in  this  country. 
In  England,  the  tubular  wrought-iron  bridge  has 
been  used  for  the  greatest  spans ;  and  the  Grand 
Trunk  company  adopt  this  for  their  bridge  at 
Montreal,  over  the  St.  Lawrence  River,  and  for 
many  smaller  bridges  on  their  line.  The  latter 
plan  is,  no  doubt,  substantial  and  good,  but  has  the 
objection  of  being  expensive.  The  wire  suspension 
bridge  has  been  adopted  to  a  limited  extent  in  this 
country  for  railway  purposes ;  as  at  Niagara  Falls. 
An  iron  truss  bridge,  invented  and  patented  by 
Mr.  Fink,  an  engineer  of  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio 
Railway,  has  been  several  years  in  use  on  that  line, 
and  is  spoken  of  favorably ;  I  have  seen  a  copy  of 
the  plan  and  specifications,  and  think  it  the  best  for 
an  iron  truss  that  I  have  seen.  It  has  a  very  satis- 
factory arrangement  to  provide  for  the  unequal 
expansion  and  contraction  of  large  and  small  pieces 
of  iron,  whereby  the  different  stages  in  time  of 
change  in  large  and  small  bars,  and  of  cast  and 
wrought  iron,  are  equalized  by  an  adjusting 
motion. 

The  suspension  plan  cannot  be  considered  as 
favorable  for  railway  use  as  the  rigid  plan,  and  the 
former  will  not  probably  be  adopted,  except  for 
large  openings  in  situations  that  do  not  admit  of 


110  RAILWAY    PKOPEBT1 

division  by  piers,  as  the  one  at  Klagai^  Falls. 
Where  there  are  reasonable  facilities  to  found  piers, 
and  circumstances  do  not  admit  of  stone  arches, 
iron  in  some  form  may  be  advantageously  adopted. 
In  considering  any  plan  for  an  iron  truss  it  is  indis- 
pensable to  see  that  provision  is  made  for  the 
unequal  expansion  and  contraction  by  changes  of 
temperature :  wrought  iron  and  cast  iron  do  not 
work  equally,  and  the  large  and  small  bars  will 
require  different  spaces  of  time  to  reach  their  limit 
of  change  by  the  same  degree  of  temperature. 
This,  as  before  remarked,  seems  to  be  well  provided 
for  in  Fink's  plan,  and  which  is  certainly  very 
ingenious.  But  the  open  tube  has  the  advantage 
of  not  needing  any  such  provision,  the  metal  being 
of  uniform  kind  and  thickness,  its  variation  in 
length  is  all  that  requires  attention,  and  for  this  it 
simply  rests  on  rollers ;  and  being  simple  in  con- 
struction, will  be  likely  to  obtain  preference 
when  iron  bridges  of  large  span  are  wanted.  Iron 
used  in  bridges  should  be  carefully  and  well  cov- 
ered with  paint  to  protect  it  from  oxidation ;  and 
this  should  be  watched,  and  renewed  as  it  wears  oft 
by  the  action  of  the  weather. 

Pile  bridges  are  sometimes  used  ;  but  they 
cannot  be  recommended,  and  should  only  be 
adopted  as  a  temporary  expedient,  to  hasten  the 


BRIDGES   AND   CTTLVERT8.  Ill 

opening  of  the  railway,  after  which  they  should  be 
superseded  by  more  substantial  and  durable  struc- 
tures. 

The  observing  railway  traveller  cannot  fail  to 
see,  that,  as  a  general  thing,  our  railway  bridges 
are  far  short  of  the  stability  necessary  to  their 
safety  and  the  true  economy  of  such  works.  The 
rapid  demand  for  railway  accommodation,  and 
the  limited  means  at  command  for  construction, 
have  doubtless  led  to  the  erection  of  temporary 
and  perishable  structures.  But  these  should  give 
place  to  those  of  a  more  substantial  and  durable 
character  as  fast  as  circumstances  permit.  It  is 
not  to  be  supposed  that  timber  bridges  can,  in  all 
cases,  in  the  construction  of  a  railway,  be  dispensed 
with.  Circumstances  of  a  controlling  nature  will 
often  render  them  expedient ;  and  all  the  engineei 
can  do,  is  to  so  plan  and  prepare  his  work,  that  this 
perishable  material,  unsafe  from  fire  and  ordinary 
.  decay,  may  at  the  earliest  period  give  place  to 
durable  structures,  that  will  be  safe  for  travellers, 
and  best  promote  the  interest  of  the  proprietors. 

At  this  time  there  are  numerous  timber  bridges 
on  our  railways,  and  many  of  them  have  stood  as 
long  as  they  should  be  trusted ;  and  it  is  quite  time 
they  were  replaced  by  stone  or  iron — the  most  suit- 
able, if  not  the  only  suitable  materials  for  such  pur 


112  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

poses.  These  wooden  bridges  are  dreaded  by  all 
passengers,  who  are  aware  of  the  uncertainty  of 
their  strength,  and  the  danger  of  their  failure  under 
an  exterior  appearance  of  soundness,  when,  in  fact, 
they  are  rotten  at  heart.  If  those  whose  business  it 
is  to  know,  are  often  mistaken  as  to  their  condition, 
how  shall  passengers  understand  if,  or  not,  they  are 
safe  ?  But  they  are  sometimes  used,  when  those  in 
charge  know  that  they  are  not  only  hazarding  the 
property  of  the  company,  but  the  lives  of  the  pas- 
sengers. It  is  hoped  and  believed  the  latter  fault 
is  not  often  practised ;  but  whether  from  error  in 
knowledge,  or  lack  of  fidelity,  the  hazard  is  the 
same.  It  will  properly  be  said,  there  is  no  excuse 
for  this ;  the  man  in  charge  should  be  competent 
and  faithful.  Now,  men  are  men,  and  the  true 
way  is  to  construct  works  of  such  great  importance, 
as  far  as  practicable,  in  a  manner  that  will  need  the 
least  possible  watching. 


ROAD   CROSSINGS.  113 


CHAPTEE  VII. 

KOAD  CROSSINGS. 

THE  more  prevalent  practice  in  this  country  is  to 
make  the  highway  crossings  on  a  level  with  the  rail 
track — bridges  being  the  exception  and  not  the 
rule ;  while  in  England,  a  level  crossing  is  rarely 
seen;  and  where  they  do  occur,  gates  made  of 
strong  bars  of  scantling  are  put  up,  and  so  arranged 
as  to  close  the  highway  when  the  track  is  open, 
and  vice  versa,  so  that  no  passing  can  occur  on 
both  at  the  same  time.  The  highway  is  usually 
kept  open ;  and  when  a  train  approaches,  the  man 
that  tends  the  crossing  shuts  the  highway  and  opens 
the  track  until  the  train  has  passed.  I  do  not  re- 
collect seeing  this  gate  arrangement  at  crossings  in 
this  country,  except  at  some  of  the  railway  cross- 
ings in  the  streets  of  Boston. 

There  are  many  situations  in  which  a  bridge  to 
pass  a  highway  over  a  railway  track  would  be  very 
expensive,  and  this  is  a  strong  reason  for  the  level 
crossing ;  and  in  some  situations  near  stations  there 
would  be  inconvenience  in  the  approaches  to  the 


114:  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

railway.  That  highways  should  pass  over  or  under 
a  railway,  where  circumstances  permit  it,  no  one 
will  question.  The  level  method  of  crossing  has 
caused  much  personal  injury,  the  loss  of  many 
lives,  and  many  persons  maimed  for  life,  and  much 
damage  to  property.  It  is  therefore  incumbent  on 
the  engineer  to  consider  well  every  facility  the  lo- 
cation presents,  of  guarding  against  the  necessity 
of  a  level  crossing,  especially  where  there  may  be 
obstruction,  preventing  a  good  range  of  sight. 
This  subject  is  of  sufficient  importance  to  justify 
some  modification  of  grade  or  line,  if  by  that  means 
a  highway  may  be  passed  by  a  bridge.  There  are 
situations  that  favor  bridging  over  or  under;  in 
some  cases,  the  route  of  the  highway  may  be 
changed,  so  as  to  permit  bridging  without  serious 
expense.  To  raise  an  embankment  to  the  elevation 
required  to  pass  over  a  railway,  sometimes  inter- 
feres with  other  avenues  or  objects  to  such  a  de- 
gree, that  it  cannot  well  be  done ;  but  if  there  be 
nothing  of  this  kind,  and  the  expense  of  raising  the 
bank  for  landing  the  highway  over  the  railway  be 
the  only  objection,  the  case  should  be  very  un- 
favorable to  warrant  a  level  crossing.  The  objec- 
tion to  merely  an  elevation  of  the  highway  as  in- 
juring the  public  accommodation  for  travel,  is  by 
no  means  worthy  of  being  placed  against  the  bene- 


ROAD   CROSSINGS.  115 

fits  the  travellers  on  the  public  road  will  feel,  in  the 
safety  from  collision  that  will  be  secured  by  the 
bridge.  If  a  level  crossing  must  be  adopted,  the 
guard  gate  should  also  be  adopted  to  prevent  col- 
lisions ;  especially  if  there  be  not  a  good  view  by 
1  which  parties  on  the  railway  or  the  highway  may 
readily  see  each  other. 

The  same  reasoning,  in  a  modified  sense,  holds  in 
relation  to  farm-road  crossings.  Serious  accidents 
have  occurred  at  these  when  made  on  the  level  of 
the  rail.  As  they  are  numerous,  and  less  import- 
ant than  highways,  they  are  more  generally  made 
level;  but,  so  far  as  reasonably  practicable,  it  is 
better  to  adopt  bridges  for  these.  I  am  well  aware 
this  subject  has  received  very  little  of  the  considera- 
tion due  to  its  importance,  and  that  the  expense  of 
the  methods  recommended  will  be  regarded  a  para- 
mount objection,  except  in  quite  easy  cases.  If  all 
the  damage  the  level  crossings  have  cost  could  be 
collected  together,  I  am  sure  it  would  show,  that 
as  a  mere  question  of  economy  the  practice 
should  be  less  common.  In  addition  to  this,  there 
are  the  uncertainty  and  consequent  anxiety  that 
must  be  experienced  by  the  managers  and  on  the 
part  of  travellers,  especially  if  trains  are  run  at  high 
speed. 

To  the  guard  gate  it  will  be  objected,  that  it  will 


116  RAILWAY   PROPERTY. 

involve  the  expense  of  an  attendant  keeper,  more 
or  less  of  the  time.  Doubtless  it  will  involve  this 
current  expense ;  but  it  will  save  life,  and  prevent 
damage  to  the  railway  proprietors,  that  will  eventu- 
ally be  equivalent  to  the  extra  cost.  The  expense 
of  a  guard  gate-keeper  is  a  legitimate  considera- 
tion to  be  weighed  in  favor  of  a  bridge. 

In  this,  as  in  all  matters  relating  to  railway  man- 
agement, there  should  be  a  careful  consideration  of 
the  means  that  may  relieve  the  chances  of  accident. 
It  is  not  sufficient  that  it  is  some  man's  duty  to 
watch  and  prevent  apprehended  danger ;  for  men 
supposed  to  be  careful,  and  who  for  some  time  may 
be  so,  yet  from  the  daily  routine  of  a  specific  duty, 
are  liable  to  become  listless,  and  however  we  may 
complain  of  their  neglect  of  duty  at  the  important 
time,  the  mischief  is  done.  No  doubt,  some  men 
are  more  negligent  than  others,  and  the  most  rigid 
scrutiny  should  be  exercised  in  their  employment 
and  supervision ;  but  men  will  be  men,  and  as  in- 
fallibility is  not  to  be  expected,  the  works  of  a  rail- 
way should  be  arranged,  as  far  as  reasonably  prac- 
ticable, so  as  to  avoid  the  necessity  of  special  watch- 
ing. There  will  be  ample  field  for  this  duty,  after 
the  works  are  arranged  in  the  most  favorable  man- 
ner. 


BALLASTING    TRACK.  117 


CHAPTEE  VIII. 

BALLASTING     TRACK. 

THERE  are  two  objects  to  be  secured  by  ballast; 
first,  a  material  that  by  its  open,  porous  character, 
will  allow  falling  water  to  pass  off  freely,  and  pre- 
vent heaving  by  frost ;  and,  second,  by  its  hardness 
and  firmness  in  all  states  of  weather,  to  sustain  the 
action  of  trains,  so  as  to  prevent,  as  much  as  possi- 
ble, the  derangement  of  the  track.  If  these  condi- 
tions are  secured,  all  others  will  be  essentially  pro- 
vided for,  so  far  as  depends  on  ballast.  In  districts 
abounding  with  clean  gravel  and  sharp  sandy  soil, 
a  good  material  for  ballast  is  easily  procured,  and 
may  be  put  on  at  the  time  of  grading  the  railway. 
But  it  more  generally  happens,  that  suitable  mate- 
rial for  ballast  cannot  be  had  in  sufficiently  close 
proximity  to  allow  profitable  hauling  by  teams,  and 
it  will  be  necessary  to  haul  it  by  trains  on  the  track. 
This  may  be  done  by  laying  the  track  on  sub-grade, 
or  on  the  base  that  is  designed  for  foundation  of 
ballast ;  it  should  be  done  with  care,  so  as  not  to 
bend  or  otherwise  injure  the  rails.  Where  circum- 


US  RAILWAY   PROPERTY. 

stances  permit,  it  is  best  to  put  down  the  ballast 
before  the  track  is  laid  ;  but  if  proper  care  is  used, 
no  great  objection  exists  to  laying  on  sub-grade, 
and  is  most  economical  if  a  track  is  required  to  be 
made  for  its  transport. 

The  quantity  of  ballast  required  will  depend 
much  on  the  material  on  which  it  rests,  and  the 
depth  penetrated  by  frost ;  and  will  range  from  one 
to  two  and  a  half  feet.  If  there  be  any  difference 
in  the  quality  of  the  ballast  pit,  the  most  clean, 
open  and  hard  should  be  placed  in  the  cuttings ; 
the  inferior  on  the  banks,  where  settlement  will  be 
likely  to  demand  an  extra  quantity,  and  where  the 
drainage  is  more  perfect  than  it  can  be  in  cuttings. 
With  a  well  drained  road-bed,  fifteen  to  eighteen 
inches  of  good  ballast  will,  in  most  cases,  be  suffi- 
cient. 

In  many  locations,  ballasting  material  is  only 
found  at  a  few  points  on  the  line  of  railway,  and 
requires  a  long  transportation  for  such  a  purpose ; 
and  sometimes  it  can  only  be  had  by  constructing 
more  or  less  of  temporary  railway  to  reach  it.  This 
has  often  led  to  a  postponement  of  ballasting,  and 
the  railway  has  been  opened  for  use  without  it.  In 
such  cases,  the  rails  are  pretty  certain  to  be  more 
or  less  damaged,  if  the  track  be  run  in  this  condi- 
tion for  any  considerable  length  of  time  If  in  the 


BALLASTING   TRACK.  119 

course  of  construction  it  appear  probable  that  such 
plan  must  be  pursued,  the  rolling  stock  necessary 
to  operate  the  railway  before  ballasting  can  be  done, 
should  be  as  light  as  will  reasonably  answer  for  the 
work  to  be  done.  The  light  stock  procured  for 
such. purpose  need  not  be  lost,  or  thrown  aside  after 
the  railway  is  in  condition  to  bear  a  heavier  class, 
as  there  will  always  be  found  sufficient  business  to 
employ  this  light  machinery  advantageously.  It  is 
obviously  of  great  importance  that,  under  these  cir- 
cumstances, the  drainage  should  be  most  thoroughly 
done.  There  are  many  soils,  that  if  well  drained 
would  bear  the  track  and  sustain  a  considerable 
traffic,  conducted  with  light  machinery  and  mode- 
rate speed.  But  to  dispense  with  or  defer  ballast, 
can  only  be  tolerated  under  the  pressure  of  urgent 
necessity,  especially  for  a  liberal  traffic. 
.  Clean  gravel  and  sand  are  the  best  materials  for 
ballast.  Broken  stone  is  very  good — it  makes  the 
most  durable  ballast,  and  has  the  least  tendency  to 
make  dust ~  but  is  not  so  favorable  for  the  dura- 
bility of  the  rail,  or  rolling  machinery.  Formerly 
it  was  considered  the  only  suitable  ballast,  and  is 
still  used  to  a  considerable  extent  where  suitable 
gravel  cannot  be  had.  Stone,  for  such  a  purpose, 
should  be  broken  so  that  any  piece  will  pass  a  two- 
inch  ring.  The  quality  of  stone  to  be  preferred,  ie 


120  RAILWAY   PROPERTY. 

a  rather  friable,  hard,  silicious  kind,  rather  than  a 
more  solid  and  unyielding  quality,  as  it  favors  the 
elasticity  desirable  in  a  rail  track.  It  seems  a  con- 
tradiction to  require  solidity,  and  at  the  same 
time  elasticity;  but  experience  has  shown  there 
may  be  too  much  solidity ;  traction,  or  adjustment  of 
track  may  be  improved  by  it,  but  the  rail  and  roll- 
ing machinery  in  high  speed  are  too  severely  acted 
on,  and  hence  a  compromise  has  to  be  sought,  and 
experience  has  settled  on  gravel  and  sharp  sand  as 
most  beneficially  securing  the  respective  objects.  In 
England,  brick  clay  has  been  burned  for  this  pur- 
pose, and  is  said  to  answer  very  well ;  and  where 
suitable  clay  is  found,  and  coal  or  wood  can  be  had 
at  moderate  cost,  it  may  be  advantageously  used  in 
this  country,  where  the  usual  material  cannot  be 
had. 

The  width  of  ballasting  should  be  such  as  to  give 
a  good  support  to  the  cross  sleepers,  and  prevent 
them  from  moving  laterally,  and  if  it  is  intended 
to  give  the  track  a  good  margin  for  safety  on 
embankments,  the  ballast  should  be  full  width.  In 
cuttings,  it  is  not  necessary  to  extend  more  than 
one  and  a  half  to  two  feet  beyond  the  ends  of  the 
cross  sleepers ;  no  more  width  being  wanted  than 
necessary  to  protect  the  sleepers  from  lateral  move- 
ment, and  except  in  sharp  curves  they  are  rarely 


BALLASTING   TRACK.  121 

known  to  move,  if  the  ballast  on  the  top  extends  so 
as  to  cover  the  ends  of  the  sleepers,  and  slopes  off 
to  one  and  a  half  feet  beyond. 

Ballast  is  necessary  on  all  soils  that  do  not  of 
themselves  constitute  a  good  ballast:  it  is  necessary 
in  rock,  to  give  the  degree  of  elasticity  found  to  be 
necessary  on  a  rail  track.  On  a  soft  base  it  is  a 
good  plan  to  lay  a  course  of  broken  stone,  and 
complete  the  ballast  with  gravel.  The  injurious 
effect  of  too  great  solidity  in  the  support  of  the 
rail  has  been  alluded  to,  and  this  is  strongly  mani- 
fest where  the  road-bed  is  made  solid  by  frost. 
The  effect  of  frost  is  in  a  measure  counteracted 
by  good  ballast,  as  there  is  more  elasticity  in  a 
free,  porous  ballast  than  in  a  retentive  soil  when 
frozen. 


122  RAILWAY   PROPERTY. 


CHAPTEK  IX. 

CROSS      SLEEPERS. 

IT  was  formerly  regarded  necessary  to  the  proper 
stability  of  a  railway,  that  it  should  be  laid  on 
stone  blocks  resting  on  a  bed  of  broken  stone. 
This  plan  gave  great  firmness  to  the  structure,  and 
easy  traction  to  the  machinery ;  but  as  speed  came 
to  be  increased,  it  was  found  to  operate  severely  on 
the  rails  and  rolling  stock,  and  has  given  place  to 
timber  sleepers.  Some  experiments  have  been 
made  in  England  on  cast  iron  as  a  substitute,  but 
as  yet  very  little  has  been  done  toward  displacing 
timber.  The  elasticity  of  timber  increases  the  trac- 
tile force  required  to  haul  a  train  ;  but  this  elasticity 
is  too  important  to  be  disregarded,  if  high  speed  is 
to  be  maintained ;  this  circumstance,  together  with 
the  facility  with  which  timber  can  be  used,  gives  it 
a  great  advantage  for  this  purpose,  and  notwith- 
standing the  objection  from  its  liability  to  early 
decay,  it  will  probably  be  used  for  a  long  time  to 
come. 

As  rails  are  laid  in  this  country,  resting  their 


CROSS   SLEEPERS.  123 

base  directly  on  the  sleeper,  without  the  inter- 
vention of  a  chair,  except  at  the  joints,  it  is  de- 
sirable the  wood  should  be  hard,  to  prevent  the 
rail  from  sinking  into  the  sleeper.  What  are 
termed  soft  woods,  will  not  long  sustain  this  ser- 
vice ;  and  what  is  wanted  in  a  sleeper  is,  durability 
with  sufficient  density  to  bear  the  action  of  the 
rail.  The  kind  of  sleeper  most  generally  preferred 
in  this  country  is  white  oak.  Chestnut  and  Chest- 
nut oak  are  good  timbers.  Locust  and  red  cedar, 
though  not  as  hard  as  oak,  from  their  great  durabi- 
lity and  fair  density,  make  good  sleepers,  and  if  the 
weight  of  machinery  is  not  too  great,  would  be 
the  most  valuable  kinds  ;  but  these  timbers  do  not 
abound,  and  can  rarely  be  obtained  at  suitable 
cost.  Red  elm  makes  a  good  sleeper,  hard  and 
durable,  scarcely  inferior  to  white  oak.  Black 
cherry  and  black  walnut  answer  very  well.  Other 
kinds  have  been  used.  The  engineer  will  most 
generally  be  compelled  to  use,  in  original  construc- 
tion, the  timber  that  can  be  obtained  not  very 
remote  from  the  line  of  railway,  and  should  take 
the  best  that  may  be  had. 

In  England,  and  in  Europe  generally,  timber  is 
much  more  expensive  than  in  this  country,  which 
has  led  to  various  methods  for  preserving  it  from 
decay ;  and  from  the  best  information  I  have 


124  RAILWAY   PROPERTY. 

obtained,  they  have  succeeded  in  giving  the  sleep- 
ers about  double  their  natural  durability.  This  is 
a  very  important  point  for  them,  where  the  renewal 
is  attended  with  heavy  expense.  The  cost  of  the 
preserving  process  is  variously  stated  for  the  diffe- 
rent methods,  from  ten  to  twenty-five  cents  per 
sleeper,  and  shows  an  important  saving  secured  by 
the  increased  durability.  The  cost  of  sleepers  in 
England  may  be  taken  at  not  less  than  one  dollar 
each,  and  therefore  the  object  of  preservation  is 
much  greater  than  in  this  country.  Timber,  how- 
ever, is  becoming  dearer  with  us,  and  attention  will 
soon  be,  if  not  already  in  some  parts,  demanded 
for  its  preservation.  On  the  methods  that  have  been 
adopted  to  increase  the  durability  of  timber,  much 
information  is  given  in  the  work  before  quoted, 
"  Colburn  and  Holly  on  European  Railways." 

Sleepers  should  be  well  seasoned  before  they  are 
laid  down,  in  order  to  obtain  the  greatest  natural 
durability,  and  to  hold  the  spike  well  that  secures 
the  rail.  Green  white  oak  is  very  unfavorable  ;  it 
will,  in  a  short  time,  so  corrode  the  spike  that  it 
may  easily  be  drawn.  If  care  is  taken,  as  the 
sleepers  are  got  out,  to  pile  them  properly,  a  good 
degree  of  seasoning  may  generally  be  secured 
before  they  are  required  for  the  track ;  this  should 
not  be  neglected,  though  I  think  it  often  is. 


CROSS   SLEEPERS.  125 

The  most  usual  method  of  getting  out  sleepers 
is  to  hew  two  sides  parallel  and  leave  the  others 
round,  or  in  their  natural  state ;  this  makes  the  best 
sleepers  used  in  this  country.  Sometimes  the  bark 
is  removed  from  the  unhewed  parts,  which  im- 
proves their  durability.  They  are  sometimes  sawed 
or  split  out  of  large  timber,  but  these  are  not  so  good 
or  convenient  for  adjustment  of  track  as  the  flatted 
sides.  The  English  mode  of  sawing  is  better  than 
ours ;  the  sleeper  is  first  sawed  in  a  square  for  two, 
and  then  sawed  diagonally,  so  as  to  produce  two  tri- 
angular sleepers  ;  and  being  laid  with  the  large  angle 
down,  they  are  easily  adjusted.  The  width  of  the 
flatted  sleeper  should  be  considered  the  heart,  or  ex- 
clusive of  the  sap  of  the  wood,  as  the  latter  will  soon 
decay  and  should  not  be  relied  on  for  the  support 
of  the  rail.  The  timber  being  hewed  only  on  two 
sides,  it  should  be  reasonably  straight,  so  as  to  give 
steady  and  firm  support  to  the  rails. 

For  the  ordinary  gauge  o£  track,  sleepers  have 
usually  been  from  seven  to  eight,  and  sometimes 
nine  feet  long.  The  latter  seems  most  suitable,  as 
giving  an  equal  support  each  side  of  the  rail ;  but  I 
have  known  very  good  tracks  well  and  easily  main- 
tained with  sleepers  eight  feet  long.  The  usual  length 
of  rail  is  eighteen  feet ;  a  joint  sleeper  ten  inches  wide 
and  ten  feet  long,  with  seven  intermediate  sleepers 


126  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

eight  feet  long,  with  a  minimum  width  of  seven 
inches,  and  six  and  a  half  inches  .thick,  makes  a 
good  support.  A  minimum  of  seven  inches  will 
give  an  average  of  eight  inches  in  width,  and 
should  be  laid  so  as  to  give,  as  near  as  may  be,  a 
uniform  support  to  the  rails.  This  number  and  size 
of  sleeper  makes  them  as  close  as  is  convenient  for 
repairs.  The  Goshen  line  of  the  Michigan  Southern 
and  Northern  Indiana  Railway  was  laid  on  this 
plan  of  sleepers,  and  under  a  high  rate  of  speed, 
proved  very  satisfactory,  and  may  be  considered  a 
good  basis  for  a  first-class  railway.  For  branch 
lines,  and  railways  designed  for  a  moderate  traffic 
and  moderate  speed,  the  cross  sleepers  may  be  pro- 
portionably  reduced  in  size. 

Sleepers  are  in  some  cases  laid  on  longitudinal 
sills,  but,  except  on  soft  ground,  and  where  the 
railway  is  to  be  put  in  operation  without  ballast, 
they  are  worse  than  useless.  In  a  few  cases,  where 
it  is  important  to  spread  the  bearing  of  the  track 
over  a  marshy  or  other  spongy  foundation,  they 
may  be  necessary.  At  this  time  they  are  rarely 
adopted. 

To  some  extent,  timber  stringers  have  been  laid 
on  the  sleepers,  and  the  rail  laid  on  the  stringer ; 
on  this  plan  the  sleepers  are  laid  further  apart. 
This  is  not  so  convenient  a  method  for  adjustment, 


CROSS    SLEEPERS.  127 

as  that  of  laying  the  rail  in  the  usual  way.  directly 
on  the  sleeper ;  it  increases  the  perishable  part  of  the 
superstructure,  and  is  now  rarely  seen  in  this  coun- 
try. I  do  not  think  it  has  advantages  to  counter- 
balance the  objections,  except  where  a  very  light 
rail  is  adopted  for  a  small  specific  traffic ;  and  even 
in  this  case,  if  timber  is  not  very  cheap,  it  is  be- 
lieved a  light  T  rail  on  cross  sleepers  is  the  better 
plan;  and  for  a  railway  of  good  general  traffic, 
there  does  not  appear  room  to  doubt  the  superiority 
of  the  usual  practice. 


128  RAILWAY   PROPERTY. 


CHAPTEK  X. 

CHAIRS    AND    SPIKES. 

IN  this  country,  chairs  are  used  only  at  the  joints 
or  ends  of  rail.  In  England,  they  use  a  chair  at 
every  sleeper.  This  requires  for  the  American  rail 
a  broad,  flat  bottom,  or  web-footed  base,  to  give 
the  requisite  bearing  surface  on  the  sleeper,  to  pre- 
vent the  rail  cutting  into  it ;  whereas  the  English 
rail  is  the  same,  or  nearly  the  same  form  on  the  top 
and  bottom,  and  is  wholly  supported  by  the  chair. 
A  chair  on  each  sleeper  gives  greater  facility  in 
furnishing  a  broad  bearing  on  the  sleeper,  and 
allows  softer  wood  to  be  used ;  for  the  chair  may 
be  broad,  and  the  action  on  the  rail  will  not 
so  soon  cut  into  the  sleeper.  Rails  are  sometimes 
laid  without  chairs  at  the  joints,  depending  wholly 
on  the  spike  to  keep  them  in  place — a  plan  that 
cannot  be  recommended.  The  chair  at  the  joint  is 
necessary  to  hold  the  ends  of  the  rails  firmly  in 
piace,  and  cannot  with  prudence  be  dispensed  with, 
unless  the  fishing  joint  be  used. 

A  great  variety  of  patterns  for  chairs,  both  of 


OHAIR8   AND    SPIKES.  129 

cast  and  wrought  iron,  has  been  used,  some  with 
wooden  keys  and  some  without.  Of  late,  the  most 
usual  chair  has  been  some  form  of  wrought  iron 
without  keys.  A  wood  key  saves  the  expense  of 
close  fitting.  It  is  hardly  possible  to  obtain  so  close 
work,  between  the  manufacturer  of  rails  and  of 
chairs,  that  there  will  not,  in  many  cases,  be  more 
or  less  work  required  to  make  a  good  joint,  or  one 
that  will  be  reasonably  close ;  and  no  care  will  make 
the  track  so  good  and  free  from  rattling  sound  as 
may  be  secured  by  a  wood  key.  "Wrought  iron 
chairs  are  the  most  safe,  but,  in  order  to  economize 
their  weight,  so  as  to  bring  them  near  the  cost  of 
cast  iron,  they  have  often  been  made  too  light  to 
be  as  good  as  they  may  be  made  without  wood 
keys,  and  I  have  never  seen  one  with  a  key.  To 
make  wrought  iron  chairs  to  receive  a  key,  would 
make  them  still  more  expensive.  It  is  not  so  easy 
to  give  the  proper  form  of  chair  to  receive  a  key 
in  wrought,  as  in  cast  iron.  Though  a  key  would 
add  to  the  safety,  and  take  away  the  rattling  sound 
of  a  track  laid  without,  still  there  can  be  no  doubt 
that  a  wrought  iron  chair  of  the  most  approved 
pattern,  well  laid,  holds  the  rails  very  firmly  to- 
gether, and  makes  a  good  track.  What  is  now 
wanted  is  a  chair  in  some  form  that  will  take  the 
bearing  of  the  wheel,  and  prevent  its  dropping  at 

6* 


130  RAILWAY   PROPERTY. 

the  point  of  the  rail  when  it  is  opened  by  contrac- 
tion, or  drawn  out  of  place,  and  so  prevent  a  blow 
that  batters  down  the  ends  of  the  rails.  This  would 
considerably  increase  the  expense  of  the  chair,  but 
would  serve  a  very  important  purpose  in  preserving 
the  ends  of  the  rails.  This  feature  will  be  further 
considered  in  the  discussion  of  rails. 

On  the  subject  of  spikes,  little  need  be  said.  The 
form  of  rail  generally  adopted  in  this  country  re- 
quires the  brad,  or  hook-headed  spike.  The  form 
is  well  understood,  and  they  will  require  to  be  made 
of  the  best  quality  of  iron.  They  are  usually  from 
half  an  inch  to  five-eighths  of  an  inch  square,  and 
four  and  a  half  to  five  inches  long,  clear  of  the 
head;  which  is  quite  sufficient  for  hard  wood 
sleepers.  Two  spikes  are  required  for  each  rail  at 
each  sleeper,  and  two  extra  at  the  joint  will  be  re- 
quired to  make  a  good  track.  Fewer  are  sometimes 
used,  and  may  answer  for  railways  of  light  traffic 
and  moderate  speed. 


RAILS.  131 


CHAPTER  XL 

BAILS. 

THE  first  form  of  rail  used  in  this  country,  consisted 
in  a  timber  stringer,  on  which  a  flat  bar  of  iron  was 
laid ;  the  iron  bar  forming  the  rail  track  for  the 
wheel,  and  the  timber  the  supporting  material. 
Though  now  generally  out  of  use,  this  kind  of  rail- 
way has  done  much  service  in  this  country,  in  a 
very  economical  way  ;  and  paid  the  proprietors,  in 
several  cases,  the  best  dividends,  and,  in  fact,  bet- 
ter than  when  subsequently  laid  in  a  more  perfect 
and  substantial  manner.  With  suitable  machinery, 
and  working  at  a  moderate  speed,  such  rails  may  do 
a  profitable  work  ;  but  they  cannot  be  recommended 
at  this  day  for  the  service  that  is  now  required  by 
general  traffic  on  railways.  For  short  railways, 
doing  a  mineral  traffic,  or  for  short  branches,  there 
may  be  situations  where  they  could  be  advantage- 
ously used  ;  and,  in  fact,  some  are  still  in  use.  The 
wear  on  the  iron  is  very  light ;  doubtless  owing  to 
the  elasticity  of  the  timber  on  which  it  rests,  and 
the  light  machinery  generally  used  on  them.  It  has 


1.32  RAILWAY   PROPERTY. 

been  stated  that  the  timber  stringer  has  been  and 
still  is  used  for  a  heavy  iron  rail  in  some  cases.  The 
longitudinal  timber,  as  it  is  termed,  being  adopted 
for  its  advantage  in  giving  a  more  uniform  support 
to  the  rails ;  but  the  practice  is  limited,  and  rails 
are  now  generally  made,  for  railways  of  general 
traffic,  to  rest  directly  on  the  cross  sleepers. 

The  difference  in  the  general  methods  of  support 
between  the  English  and  American  railways  has 
been  noticed.  The  railways  on  the  continent  of 
Europe  have  adopted,  to  some  extent,  the  American 
plan,  but  for  the  most  part,  I  think,  they  have  the 
English.  The  former  has  the  advantage  of  simpli- 
city and  ready  adjustment ;  the  latter,  that  of  in- 
creased means  to  enlarge  the  bearing  on  the  sleep- 
ers ;  and  it  has  been  urged  as  a  further  advantage, 
that  they  admit  the  form  of  top  and  bottom  of  rail 
to  be  alike,  so  that  when  the  top  is  too  much  worn 
for  use,  they  can  be  reversed  and  the  wear  of  the 
two  heads  obtained  from  one  rail.  This  is  certainly 
a  plausible  consideration ;  but  for  some  reason  it 
does  not  appear  to  be  much  practised,  the  greater  part 
of  English  and  continental  rails  on  this  plan  of  sup- 
ports do  not  have  the  top  and  bottom  exactly  alike ; 
from  which  it  would  appear  that  this  is  not  gene- 
rally regarded  of  material  importance.  The  Ame- 
rican rail  was  invented  by  the  late  Robert  L.  Ste- 


BAILS.  133 

vons,  of  New  York,  and  first  used  on  the  Camden 
and  Amboy  'Railway.  On  its  first  introduction 
(about  1830)  it  was  regarded  of  doubtful  utility ;  it 
being  apprehended  the  brad-head  spike  would  not 
secure  it  against  lateral  thrust,  and  if  it  did,  the 
rail  would  fail  in  the  waist.  These  apprehensions 
have  been  dissipated  by  very  general  experience, 
and  they  are  at  this  time  almost  wholly  used  in  this 
country.  Manufacturers  do  not  like  them  so  well, 
on  account  of  the  difficulty  in  forming  the  thin, 
broad,  web  base,  which  is  not  as  easily  done  as  the 
more  compact  and  rounded  form  given  to  a  rail 
that  depends  on  chairs  for  support.  The  American 
rail  in  dispensing  with  the  intermediate  chairs,  is  less 
expensive  to  lay,  and  has  the  greatest  facility  for 
adjustment ;  and  we  may  be  satisfied  with  it,  as  on 
the  whole  equal  and,  I  think,  superior  to  any  other. 

The  U  rail,  as  it  is  called,  resembles  the  letter  U 
inverted ;  it  has  been  mostly  used  on  the  timber 
stringer,  and  has  some  advocates,  but  has  not  come 
into  general  use. 

A  great  deal  of  ingenuity  has  been  exercised  on 
the  form  of  rails,  both  in  this  country  and  in  Eng- 
land. The  plans  do  not  seem  to  have  yet  reached 
a  satisfactory  result,  at  least  not  sufficient  to  pro- 
duce uniformity,  and  modifications  continue  to  be 
proposed  for  their  improvement.  They  have  gone 


134  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

through  many  changes,  and  the  best  of  each  kind, 
so  far  as  relates  to  the  bearing  and  strength  of  the 
rails,  may  be  regarded  as  pretty  fairly  adapted  to 
their  use.  There  is,  however,  one  point  that  ap- 
proaches slowly  to  the  proper  form  ;  namely,  the 
face  or  track  surface  on  which  the  wheel  rolls.  It 
is  remarkable  that  this  has  had,  to  a  great  extent, 
and  at  times  almost  universally  in  England  and  this 
country,  a  round  form.  Whatever  advantage  this 
may  give  to  the  form  and  durability  of  the  rail,  it  is 
obviously  very  bad  for  the  wheel ;  as  the  tendency 
is,  and.  the  result  has  long  shown  it,  to  cut  a  groove 
in  the  rim  or  tyre,  more  rapidly  destroying  the 
wheel,  and  as  the  groove  forms,  increases  its  fric- 
tion at  the  periphery,  and  operating  injuriously  on 
the  rail.  The  groove  is  liable  to  be  neglected  until 
it  is  unsafe  to  run  the  wheel.  With  a  flat  top,  a 
groove  will  eventually  be  formed,  but  much  less 
rapidly;  and  the  later  patterns  are  less  rounded, 
and,  what  is  better,  some  have  a  flat  surface  for  the 
wheel.  What  is  wanted  is,  as  much  breadth  of  flat 
top  as  can  be  got,  leaving  so  much  to  be  rounded 
off,  as  will  give  adequate  firmness  and  wearing  sur- 
face on  the  edge  that  receives  the  action  of  the 
flange  of  the  wheel. 

The   weight   of  rails  that  rest  directly  on  the 
cross  sleepers  for  support,  has  been  increased  from 


KAILS.  135 

35  pounds  per  yard,  the  original  pattern  on  the 
Liverpool  and  Manchester  Kailway,  to  about  95 
pounds.  For  some  time  past  the  tendency  has 
been  to  reduce  from  the  greater  weights,  and  from 
56  to  65  pounds  per  yard  may  be  regarded  as 
embracing  most  of  the  patterns  now  being  made. 
The  manufacture  of  large  patterns  is  not  considered 
to  be  as  perfect,  at  least  they  are  more  likely  to  be 
imperfect  than  smaller  ones ;  and  to  this,  in  a  great 
measure,  has  been  attributed  the  disappointment  in 
the  durability  of  the  largest  class  of  rails.  The 
strength  of  rail  to  support  the  weight  that  comes 
upon  it,  must  depend  on  the  frequency  of  support- 
ing sleepers ;  and  consequently  as  these  are  near 
each  other,  the  rail  may  be  lighter.  "With  such  an 
arrangement  of  sleepers  as  has  before  been  pro- 
posed, a  60  pound  rail  may  be  formed,  so  as  to  be 
sufficient  for  the  service  of  a  first-class  railway. 

The  conditions  I  would  propose  for  such  a  rail  on 
the  American  pattern  are :  height,  three  and  five- 
eighths  inches;  breadth  of  web,  three  and  seven- 
eighths  inches ;  thickness  of  waist,  five-eighths  of  an 
inch,  and  a  level  surface  on  the  top  of  one  and  a  half 
inches.  These  dimensions  properly  formed  to  a  60 
pound  rail  may  be  well  manufactured,  and  will 
make  a  first-class  railway. 

There  are  lines  of  railway  in  operation  that  have 


136  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

a  light  traffic,  mostly  local ;  and  doubtless  there 
are  many  other  districts,  that  as  the  country  is 
improved,  will  require  similar  railways  to  provide 
for  their  traffic,  and  are  not  sufficient  to  support  a 
first-class  railway ;  for  these  lines  a  rail  weighing 
45  pounds  to  the  yard  may  be  quite  sufficient, 
more  durable,  and  be  adopted  with  better  economy 
than  a  heavy  rail.  A  railway  of  this  kind  should 
have  all  its  parts  to  correspond ;  engines  and  cars 
should  be  proportionately  light.  It  would  not  be 
necessary  in  such  districts  to  run  trains  at  high 
speed,  and  the  traffic  may  be  conducted  as  cheap 
per  ton,  or  per  passenger,  as  on  ordinary  first-class 
railways,  and  confer  great  benefits  on  the  routes 
they  traverse.  This  view  of  railways  will  increase 
in  importance  as  the  population  increases,  in  dis- 
tricts that,  from  the  formation  of  the  country,  are 
not  and  cannot  be  traversed  by  leading  lines,  and 
can  only  reach  the  main  lines,  or  the  marts  of  com- 
merce, by  common  roads,  or  by  railways  that  may 
be  supported  by  a  local  traffic.  As  the  science  of 
railways  comes  to  be  more  thoroughly  studied,  it 
will  be  found  that  a  light  class  may  be  profitably 
and  usefully  conducted,  and  its  benefits  extended 
to  many  situations  that  now  look  hopelessly  for 
such  accommodation.  Strange  as  it  may  seem,  it 
has  been  the  usual  practice  to  put  machinery  of 


RAILS.  137 

essentially  the  same  character  and  weight  on  rail- 
ways of  light  traffic,  as  is  used  for  those  of  heavy 
traffic,  even  in  cases  where  the  track  has  been 
made  with  a  rail  of  lighter  weight.  This  is  one  of 
the  errors  of  railway  practice,  and  will  doubtless 
be  corrected  in  time ;  but  as  yet  the  weight  on  the 
rail  and  the  speed  of  trains  have  not  had  adequate 
consideration,  and  especially  on  those  having  a 
secondary  amount  of  traffic. 

The  rail,  in  most  cases,  fails  first  at  the  ends,  and 
a  good  deal  of  attention  has  been  directed  to  find 
means  to  protect  it  in  this  respect.  The  effect  of 
temperature  to  open  and  close  the  joint  is  well 
known ;  this  is  sometimes  increased  by  the  want 
of  proper  attention  in  laying  down  the  rails  ;  work- 
men do  not  always  judge  well  of  the  temperature 
existing  at  the  time ;  and  if  allowance  is  made  for 
too  low  a  temperature,  there  will  be  danger  the  raL 
may  rise  up  and  sometimes  be  very  troublesome  to 
adjust,  and  dangerous  for  passing  trains;  hence, 
they  usually  err  on  the  other  side,  causing  greater 
opening  at  the  joint  than  is  due  to  temperature. 
The  longer  the  rail  bar,  the  greater  this  difficulty. 
Other  causes  operate  to  draw  the  joints  apart,  and 
it  is  not  unusual  to  see  openings  of  half  an  inch  to 
one  inch,  and  occasionally  I  have  seen  them  two 
inches  on  railways  of  large  traffic ;  this  is  danger- 


138  RAILWAY   PROPERTY. 

rous  and  should  not  happen.  To  remedy  theee 
evils,  rails  have  been  made  in  two  pieces  longitudi- 
nally, and  put  together  so  that  the  joint  of  one 
part  is  supported  by  the  other,  by  what  is  termed 
breaking-joints,  and  is  known  as  a  compound  rail. 
The  two  bars  are  riveted  together  as  they  are  laid 
in  the  track,  and  form,  united,  the  usual  pattern  of 
rail.  They  have  been  usually  divided  vertically, 
so  that  the  joint  passes  through  the  head  or  track 
for  the  wheel.  Other  forms  of  compound  rail  have 
been  used ;  I  have  seen  one  that  leaves  the  head 
in  one  entire  piece.  A  wheel  rolls  much  more 
smoothly  over  a  compound  rail,  and  gives  a  very 
agreeable  motion,  free  from  the  jar  at  the  joints. 
Not  only  pleasant  motion  is  secured  by  breaking 
the  joints  of  the  rail,  but  the  effect  of  the  blow 
caused  by  the  common  joint  on  the  foundation  of 
the  track  and  the  rolling  machinery  is  avoided. 
The  importance  of  securing  these  results  is  obvious ; 
but  the  compound  rail  has  not  been  generally 
adopted.  It  does  not  appear  to  have  the  same  dur- 
ability as  the  common  rail,  though  the  joints  are 
much  better  protected,  probably  owing  to  the 
head  or  track  being  divided  in  two  parts,  and  held 
together  by  rivets  that  are  hardly  sufficient  for  the 
severe  action  to  which  they  are  exposed;  and  of 
late  they  are  not  as  much  esteemed  as  when  first 


KAILS.  139 

iaid  down,  and  I  think  but  few  of  them  are  used 
at  this  time.  The  full-headed  compound  rail  before 
noticed,  presents  the  full  form  of  the  head,  without 
joint,  to  the  action  of  the  wheel,  but  does  not  pre- 
vent the  joint  from  opening  by  the  contraction  of 
the  rail,  but  secures  it  from  opening  by  any  other 
cause,  the  same  as  a  fishing-joint.  I  have  seen  a 
piece  of  this  rail  that  had  been  down  on  a  grade 
of  80  feet  per  mile,  and  four  years  in  use  under  a 
very  heavy  traffic.  The  bolts  or  rivets  were  con- 
siderably worn,  and  many  of  them  loose,  but  the 
rail  was  in  fair  order  for  the  traffic  it  had  borne  ;  a 
piece  on  the  same  railway,  and  laid  at  the  same 
time  on  a  light  grade,  was  in  very  good  order.  1 
do  not  see  that  anything  is  secured  by  this  rail, 
beyond  what  is  secured  by  a  good  fishing-joint. 

To  guard  against  the  difficulty  at  the  joint,  a 
method  before  alluded  to,  and  styled  a  fishing-joint, 
has,  to  some  extent,  been  adopted.  This  consists 
in  riveting  two  plates  of  iron,  one  on  each  side  of  the 
rail,  the  rivets  passing  through  the  rail ;  the  plates 
are  rolled  in  form  to  fit  the  rail  at  the  edges  of  the 
plates,  and  are  from  18  to  24  inches  long,  with  two 
rivets  in  each  end.  They  are  very  efficient  to  hold 
the  rails  in  line,  and  are  in  considerable  esteem  in 
England.  It  is  obvious,  however,  they  cannot  pre- 
vent the  action  of  the  temperature  in  opening  and 


140  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

closing  the  joint,  but  are  effective  against  other 
causes  of  opening.  The  plates  are  strong  enough 
to  sustain  the  wheel,  and  are  laid  so  as  to  bring  the 
joint  between,  instead  of  on  the  sleepers,  as  no  more 
support  is  required  at  the  joint  than  for  other  por- 
tions of  the  rail,  and  consequently  joint  sleepers  are 
not  required.  If  the  outside  plate  was  so  formed 
that  its  upper  surface  should  come  to  the  level  of 
the  rail,  and  be  able  to  take  the  wheel  at  any  in- 
stance of  the  opening  of  the  joint,  it  would  greatly, 
if  not  effectually,  protect  the  ends  of  rail  from  being 
worn  off,  and  relieve  the  jar  materially  at  the  in- 
stant the  wheel  passed  over  it. 

A  method  has  been  adopted  to  sustain  the  wheel 
at  the  joint,  by  laying  a  wooden  scantling  imme- 
diately behind  the  joint,  and  having  its  top  level 
with  the  rail,  the  scantling  extending  from,  and 
resting  on  the  two  sleepers  each  side  of  the  joint 
sleepers,  and  firmly  secured  in  place.  A  hard  piece 
of  seasoned  white  oak  is  said  to  bear  this  service 
very  well,  and  the  plan  is  much  approved  by  some 
who  have  adopted  it.  It,  no  doubt,  will  be  much 
relief  to  the  rail  joints,  so  long  as  the  timber  sus- 
tains its  level  with  the  rail ;  but  it  may  be  doubted 
if  any  wood  will  long  bear  such  service.  Such  a 
piece  ot  scantling  has  been  used  to  form  a  fishing 
joint;  in  which  case  it  is  formed  to  fit  the  side  of 


RAILS.  141 

the  rail,  and  is  bolted  to  it,  but  does  not  rise  to  the 
level  of  the  rail ;  I  am  not  aware  that  it  lias  been 
used  any  great  length  of  time  ;  but  it  is  said  to  have 
worked  very  well.  This  is  merely  using  wood  in- 
stead of  iron  for  a  fishing  plate,  and  I  think  it  has 
advantages  over  iron  in  the  elasticity  of  the  wood, 
which  favors  the  bolts.  It  differs  from  the  iron 
fishing  in  having  the  scantling  only  on  one  side, 
whereas  the  iron  fishing  has  a  plate  on  each  side 
the  rail ;  with  an  iron  plate  opposite  the  scantling, 
the  strength  to  support  the  rail  would  be  improved, 
and  without  this  it  is  necessary  the  joint  should  rest 
on,  and  not  between  the  sleepers.  As  before  ob- 
served, the  fishing  of  the  joint  cannot  prevent  the 
opening  that  arises  from  temperature,  but  secures  it 
against  any  further  opening,  and  this  is  very  import- 
ant. Kit  be  found  important  that  the  fishing  joint 
oe  made  sufficient  to  sustain  the  weight  of  the 
wheel  between  the  sleepers,  as  is  tne  usual  practice 
in  England,  the  iron  plates  will  most  probably  be 
preferred  to  the  timber  scantling.  I  saw  at  the 
engineers'  office  of  the  New  York  Central  Railway 
a  full-sized  model  of  fishing  plates,  that  I  think  will 
succeed  well  for  iron  fishing  if  made  a  little  longer, 
so  as  to  take  two  bolts  at  each  end. 

On  railways  of  heavy  traffic  and  high  speed,  it  is 
not  probable  any  method  of  securing  the  joints  will 


142  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

hold  them  permanently.  The  severity  of  the  ser- 
vice will  wear  and  weaken  some  part,  and  repairs 
and  renewal  will  demand  watchful  attention;  at 
the  same  time,  and  for  this  very  reason,  it  is  im- 
portant to  ascertain  the  best  method,  and  this  must 
result  only  from  careful  experiments  on  the  differ- 
ent modes.  The  scantling  method  that  has  been 
described  now  promises  favorably,  and  is  worthy  a 
careful  trial  in  comparison  with  the  iron  fishing.  A 
chair  that  will  securely  hold  the  rail  in  place  is  a 
very  fair  method,  and  will  answer  a  good  purpose 
on  roads  of  moderate  traffic,  where  high  speed  is 
not  required.  The  engineer  will  find  this  subject 
one  of  great  interest,  and  a  wholesome  tax  on  his 
ingenuity  and  capacity,  notwithstanding  it  may  ap- 
pear to  some  as  having  been  exhausted.  The  de- 
terioration of  rails,  especially  at  the  joints,  under 
the  service  they  have  been  required  to  perform,  has 
assumed  an  importance  not  heretofore  well  con- 
eidered. 


STATION    BUILDINU8.  343 


CHAPTER  XII. 

STATION    BUILDINGS. 

THE  convenient  arrangement  of  station  buildings 
is  highly  important  to  the  transaction  of  railway 
business,  and  demands  careful  attention  from  the 
engineer,  especially  for  the  terminal  and  more  im- 
portant way  stations.  It  is  not  necessary  that  they 
be  expensive,  but  arranged  so  as  to  effect  the  most 
convenient  transaction  of  business.  Local  circum- 
stances, as  also  the  nature  of  the  traffic,  will  have 
great  influence  on  this  question,  and  more  or  less 
modify  the  extent  and  main  features  of  the  plans. 
On  some  lines,  the  handling  of  freight  is  done  by 
individuals,  in  which  case  a  portion  of  the  expense 
of  station  building  is,  or  may  be,  borne  by  other 
parties — a  practice  of  not  very  general  use.  For 
the  most  part,  the  railway  company  do  the  hand- 
ling, and  if  they  put  it  in  the  hands  of  others,  most 
generally  provide  the  necessary  buildings. 

In  a  freight  station  it  is  necessary  to  considei 
well  the  plan  that  will  bring  the  goods  to  a  point, 
that  with  the  least  movement  will  allow  the  transit 


Jt*  RAILWAY   PROPERTY. 

between  the  railway  cars  and  the  vessel,  wagon,  or 
cars  of  other  railways,  to  or  from  which  it  is  to  be 
transferred  ;  having  reference  to  the  labor  of  load- 
ing, unloading,  stowing,  and  taking  account  of  the 
parcels  of  goods  ;  amounting  to  a  large  item  in  the 
expense  of  railway  freighting.  Proper  facilities  in 
this  department,  not  only  economize  current  ex- 
pense, but  greatly  reduce  the  chances  of  error  by 
the  tallying  checks.  The  station  should  be  provided 
with  suitable  machinery,  according  to  the  value  and 
extent  of  the  traffic,  so  as  to  render  available  the 
economy  of  horse  or  mechanical  power,  the  latter 
preferable  where  the  business  will  warrant  it.  This 
is  particularly  important  in  a  large  grain  trade, 
when  the  transit  is  between  the  railway  and  water 
craft ;  in  which  great  improvement  has  been  made 
within  a  few  years  past,  and  the  time  and  expense 
of  transit  has  been  greatly  reduced.  I  have  known 
a  station  that,  on  a  charge  of  one  cent  per  bushel  on 
grain,  paid  all  the  expenses,  from  the  time  the  car 
was  brought  to  the  station  until  the  grain  was  on 
shipboard,  and,  in  addition  to  these  expenses,  paid 
a  rent  of  20  per  cent,  on  the  building  and  ma- 
chinery ;  the  work  done,  included  the  unloading  the 
•jar,  elevating  the  grain  to  a  shipping  loft,  and  weigh- 
*ng  and  conveying  it  to  the  hold  of  the  vessel ; 
the  latter  being  done  at  the  rate  of  3,000  bushels 


STATION    BUILDINGS.  145 

per  hour  for  a  single  hold  to  receive,  uid  double  if 
the  vessel  had  two  receiving  holds  to  operate  at  the 
same  time. 

The  floor  of  the  building,  or  whatever  constitutes 
the  channel  of  transit  from  or  to  the  railway,  should 
be  under  cover,  and  lie  between  the  vessel  and  the 
car,  as  this  is  most  convenient  for  the  transitory 
storage  often  required.  For  miscellaneous  goods, 
one  story  high  is  sufficient,  and  to  prevent  exposure 
from  fire,  it  is  best  to  have  no  loft  in  such  a  build- 
ing, which  would  prove  of  small  account,  as  storage 
is  not  wanted  for  such  length  of  time  as  would  war- 
rant the  expense  of  hoisting :  but  a  portion  of  the 
loft  may  in  some  cases  be  advantageously  occupied 
as  an  office  for  current  freight  business.  For  goods 
not  liable  to  theft,  open  sheds  are  economical  and 
convenient,  and  to  considerable  extent  may  be  used 
for  housing  freight. 

In  connection  with  the  freight  buildings,  there 
should  be  spare  tracks,  on  which  trains  of  cars  may 
be  conveniently  made  up,  so  as  to  require  as  little 
movement  as  practicable,  and  prepared  to  start  out 
on  their  appointed  time ;  also,  for  incoming  trains 
that  may  not  be  able  at  once  to  take  their  proper 
position  for  unloading ;  and  for  empty  cars  to  stand, 
while  not  wanted,  or  Waiting  for  small  repairs.  To 
provide  the  spare  track,  so  that  all  these  objects 

7 


146  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

may  be  accomplished  with  the  least  labor  and 
hazard  of  confusion,  will  be  found,  in  most  situa- 
tions, to  require  much  study.  The  entire  freight 
arrangements  at  important,  and  especially  at  ter- 
minal stations,  should,  if  possible,  be  kept  wholly 
disconnected  from  the  passenger  station  after 
branching  from  the  main  track. 

At  way  stations,  the  extent  of  accommodations 
will  depend  on  the  amount  of  business,  and  some- 
what on  the  competition  of  other  railways;  the 
latter  may  require  more  careful  economy,  and  bet- 
ter inducements  to  shippers  than  would  otherwise 
be  necessary,  and  should  be  carefully  regarded  in 
the  plans  for  station  arrangements.  They  should  be 
more  simple  than  the  terminal  stations,  as  the  busi- 
ness will  be  less  ;  but  so  far  as  they  have  business, 
they  should  be  arranged  with  similar  views  of  eco- 
nomy and  convenience.  Where  a  large  grain  busi- 
ness is  done,  the  loft  is  used  for  grain,  and  the  main 
floor  for  miscellaneous  goods.  In  many  cases  the 
grain  is  elevated  to  the  loft  by  a  roadway,  on  which 
the  team  that  brings  the  grain  to  the  railway  tra- 
vels up  an  easy  grade ;  in  others,  an  inclined-plane 
railway  extends  to  the  loft,  and  when  the  grain  is 
unloaded  from  the  wagon  into  a  light  car  standing 
at  the  foot  of  the  plane,  the  car  is  drawn  up  by  a 
rope  over  a  pulley— the  rope  being  hitched  to  the 


STATION   BUILDINGS.  147 

wagon,  and  as  the  team  moves  off  with  the  wagon, 
it  draws  up  the  grain  car.  -  In  either  case,  the 
railway  company  (except  for  the  fixtures)  is  at  no 
expense  for  the  elevating  power ;  and  either  method 
is  usually  satisfactory  to  shippers.  The  latest  and, 
as  I  consider,  the  most  approved  roadway,  is  carried 
up  into  the  end  of  the  building,  and  the  team  passes 
through  and  down  by  a  bridge  from  the  other  end 
of  the  building.  The  load  is  weighed  before  it 
goes  up,  and  the  grain  emptied  directly  into  the 
garners,  requiring  no  machinery  to  transfer  it  from 
the  wagon — the  whole  is  very  economical.  I  have 
only  seen  this  plan  of  roadway  on  the  Chicago  and 
Rock  Island  Railway.  The  elevated  roadway  is 
best  for  a  large  business,  and  the  inclined  railway 
for  a  small  business.  From  the  loft,  the  grain  is 
conveniently  loaded  into  the  cars  by  spouts.  The 
elevating  is  sometimes  done  by  machinery,  with 
horse  or  steam  power  ;  and  in  some  instances  this  is 
required  by  local  circumstances  ;  but  it  is  very  ex- 
pensive, and  one  of  the  other  modes,  above  de- 
scribed, should  be  adopted  if  practicable. 

PASSENGER  STATION. — The  indispensable  thing 
here  is,  to  provide  sufficient  tracks  to  accommodate 
all  the  incoming  and  outgoing  trains,  so  that  they 
need  not  interfere  with  each  other  ;  and  also  such  as 
may  be  required  for  standing  coaches.  The  terminal 


148  RAILWAY    PEOPEETT. 

stations  should*  be  covered,  where  there  is  much 
traffic,  so  far  as  to  afford  shelter  for  passengers  and 
baggage,  while  making  up  and  discharging  trains. 
Waiting  rooms  should  be  provided  for  passengers, 
who  will  be  more  or  less  detained  for  the  trains,  and 
for  conveyances  to  take  them  from  the  discharging 
train.  A  convenient  ticket-office  should  be  placed 
in  this  building ;  and  rooms  provided  for  baggage, 
especially  such  as  may  not  be  at  once  called  for. 
The  covered  part,  where  the  trains  are  made  up 
and  discharged,  should  have  a  floor  over  the  whole 
area.  Formerly  it  was  the  general  practice  to 
have  a  raised  platform  alongside  of  the  out-going 
and  in-coming  tracks,  elevated  from  one  to  three 
feet,  to  facilitate  the  passengers  in  getting  in  and 
out  of  the  coaches;  but  this  has  generally  given 
place,  in  modern  stations,  to  the  plan  of  making 
the  whole  floor  on  a  level  with  the  track,  and 
which  is  no  doubt  more  convenient  and  safe  for 
general  use;  it  is  more  convenient  for  receiving 
and  discharging  passengers,  and  if  more  than  one 
track  is  required  for  out-going  and  in-coming  trains, 
it  is  perfectly  convenient  to  use  either,  as  no  track- 
pits  are  in  the  way  to  embarrass  passengers,  or 
expose  them  to  hazard.  A  further  advantage  in  a 
level  floor  arises  from  the  convenience  afforded  of 
moving  baggage  trucks  in  any  direction. 


STATION   BUILDINGS.  149 

An  office  will  be  required  at  one  of  the  teimi- 
nal  stations,  where  the  general  business  of  the 
company  should  be  transacted.  This  office  should 
be  convenient  to  the  station,  as  here  all  reports, 
way-bills,  check-rolls,  and  accounts  are  sent  for 
arrangement  and  disposal.  If  the  situation  be 
favorable,  it  may  be  combined  with  some  other 
station  building  ;  but  in  regard  to  safety  from  fire, 
it  is  usually  better  to  have  a  separate  building, 
with  ample  fire-proof  safes,  as  a  large  quantity  of 
documents  will  be  collected  here,  in  a  few  years, 
the  loss  of  which  would  be  very  great  to  the  rail- 
way company,  and  seriously  embarrass  the  manage- 
ment. 

The  terminal  stations  will  require  some  provision 
for  engine  and  coach  sheds;  the  latter  may,  in 
some  cases,  be  provided  for  sufficiently  in  the  pas- 
senger coach  shed.  Shop  accommodations  in  con- 
nection with  the  engine-shed,  should  be  provided 
to  some  extent  for  small  repairs.  In  most  cases,  it 
will  be  best  to  have  the  main  shop  for  repairs  of 
engines,  coaches,  and  cars,  at  one  of  the  terminal 
stations.  In  the  latter  case,  the  main  shop,  with 
engine  and  other  sheds,  should  be  placed  outside, 
and  as  near  to  the  station  as  the  ground  will  per- 
mit. If  the  situation  of  ground  permit,  it  should 
have  its  side-tracks  immediately  back  of  the 


150  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

switches,  or  points  that  separate  the  passenger  from 
the  freight  trains  as  they  go  into  the  station.  That 
portion  of  the  shop  designed  for  repairs  of,  engines 
should  be  in  convenient  position  in  reference  to  the 
engine  shed,  so  as  to  require  the  least  practicable 
movement  of  engines  between  the  shop  and  shed. 
The  coach  and  car-shop  will  require  a  paint-shop 
connected,  for  repainting  and  varnishing,  and  liberal 
spare  track  for  standing-room.  It  will  be  economy 
to  so  arrange  the  shops,  that  the  same  stationary 
power  will  drive  the  machinery  of  both.  The 
blacksmith's  shop  should  be  convenient  to  do  the 
work  of  both  the  other  shops. 

An  important  feature  in  shops  of  this  kind  is, 
some  arrangement  by  which  an  engine,  coach  or 
car  may  be  placed  in  and  removed  from  the  shop 
without  disturbing  the  repairs  of  others;  this  is 
often  done  in  a  very  bungling  way.  The  transfer- 
table,  if  well  made,  so  as  to  work  easy,  is,  I  think, 
the  best  method ;  when  properly  constructed,  it 
works  easy,  and  meets  the  wants  of  the  case  in 
a  most  direct  and  convenient  manner. 

The  magnitude  of  the  various  station  structures 
must  depend  on  the  traffic  to  be  provided  for. 
This  is  likely  to  be  larger  at  some  future  day  than 
for  the  first  few  years  of  the  operations  of  the 
railway,  and  it  will  not,  in  most  cases,  be  economy 


STATION    BUILDINGS.  151 

to  make  the  outlay  in  the  commencement  sufficient 
for  the  probable  future  wants  of  the  railway  ;  and 
with  this  view,  the  plans,  so  far  as  may  be  practi- 
cable, should  be  made  with  reference  to  enlarge- 
ment, as  further  accommodation  may  be  demanded 
by  increasing  traffic ;  and  in  most  respects  this 
may  easily  be  done,  if  seasonably  looked  after. 

It  often  happens  that  railways  are  put  in  opera- 
tion before  any  considerable  progress  is  made  in 
station  buildings;  but  if  few  or  no  buildings  are 
prepared  at  the  opening,  the  engineer  should  have 
his  plans  matured,  so  that  the  work,  as  it  may  pro- 
gress, shall  be  in  conformity ;  that  the  whole,  when 
completed,  may  have  the  order  and  symmetry  that 
will  secure  the  greatest  ultimate  economy  in  con- 
ducting the  traffic  of  the  station.  I  am  well  aware 
that  the  engineer  of  a  railway  is  not  always  respon- 
sible for  ill  advised  station  arrangements,  especially 
when  not  completed  until  after  the  railway  is  put  in 
operation  ;  for  then  a  superintendent  of  the  operat- 
ing department,  if  not  of  the  railway  in  full,  is  put 
in  charge,  and  in  some  cases,  he  may  have  little 
education  to  fit  him  for  studying  the  requirements 
of  a  railway  station;  but  usually  enough  of  self- 
reliance  to  regard  his  capacity  for  such  matters  as 
much  beyond  that  of  the  engineer ;  and  if  he  has, 
as  is  most  likely,  the  influence  of  the  board  of 


152  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

managers,  he  will  often  disregard  the  engineer, 
and  under  plea  of  some  present  necessity,  proceed 
with  some  part  of  the  works  with  little  regard  to 
interference  with  any  well  devised  arrangement 
that  the  ultimate  wants  of  the  station  may  demand. 
If  the  engineer  is  incompetent,  a  competent  one 
should  be  obtained,  as  his  education  is  best  designed 
to  secure  the  capacity  wanted  in  such  matters ;  nor 
is  it  the  proper  province  of  a  superintendent  to  con- 
trol him.  A  further  difficulty  is  sometimes  ex- 
perienced by  agreements  between  the  managers  and 
citizens  of  towns  in  regard  to  station  arrangements, 
that  prove  very  embarrassing  to  the  future  business 
of  the  railway.  In  one  of  these  ways,  or  in  the 
failure  of  the  engineer  to  prepare  suitable  plans, 
may  be  traced  the  awkward  and  inconvenient  sta- 
tion arrangements  that  are  not  unfrequently  to  be 
Been  on  railways. 


LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINES.  153 


CHAPTER    XIII. 

LOCOMOTIVE   ENGINES. 

THE  locomotive  engines  are  a  part  of  the  rolling 
stock,  and  constitute  a  portion  of  the  construction 
of  a  railway,  and  should  be  carefully  considered  by 
the  engineer. 

After  an  extensive  use  for  over  a  quarter  of  a 
century,  the  locomotive  engine  is  a  machine  that 
does  not  fail  to  inspire  the  feeling  of  wonder  and 
admiration  in  those  who  witness  its  movements, 
and  especially  those  who  are  familiar  with  its 
mechanism,  and  can  appreciate  its  duties  and  its 
power.  That  such  a  machine  may  travel  in  day- 
light— in  the  darkness  of  midnight — in  sunshine 
and  in  storm — through  cultivated  fields  and  dense 
forests — through  hill  and  over  dale — at  the  rate  of 
fifty  miles  per  hour — carrying  hundreds  of  people, 
as  it  thunders  its  way  onward  to  the  distant  station — 
and  in  all  its  marvellous  speed  and  power,  holds  fast 
to  the  narrow  track,  is  truly  a  wonder  ;  and  though 
a  thousand  times  witnessed,  I  never  fail  to  admire 

7* 


1£4  RAILWAY   PROPERTY. 

and  enjoy )  as  it  passes  with  its  long  train,  this 
splendid  specimen  of  art. 

Locomotives  should  be  adapted  to  the  work  they 
are  required  to  perform.  As  has  been  noticed,  they 
are  now  made  much  heavier  than  when  the  system 
was  first  brought  into  use.  It  should  be  kept  in 
mind  that  heavy  engines  require  more  expense  for 
repairs  of  track,  and  for  their  own  repairs,  than 
lighter  ones.  A  judicious  arrangement  in  the 
weight  of  engines  will  have  great  influence  on  the 
economy  of  working  the  railway,  and  it  should  not 
be  forgotten,  that  the  object  of  the  proprietors  is, 
remuneration  for  the  outlay  they  are  required  to 
make. 

In  the  service  of  all  railways  there  is  a  consider- 
able portion  that  may  be  done  most  economically 
by  light  engines ;  and  on  many  railways  a  large 
proportion.  The  speed  required  will  have  much 
influence  on  the  weight  of  engines.  No  intelligent 
railway  manager  will  run  at  a  higher  speed  for 
express  trains,  than  25  miles  per  hour,  including 
stops,. unless  compelled  by  some  competitor  for  the 
passenger  traffic.  Attempts  have  been  made  to 
show  the  relative  cost  of  high  and  low  speed ;  but 
none,  so  far  as  I  know,  on  any  well-founded  data. 
It  is  not  easy  to  get  at  a  basis  that  would  be  suffi- 
cient to  warrant  any  computation  on  which  a  rule 


LOCOMOTIVE   ENGINES.  155 

or  formula  to  determine  this  question  might  be 
made.  Fast  trains  and  slow  trains — heavy  engines 
and  light,  are  used  indiscriminately  on  the  same 
track,  and  it  is  impossible  to  decide  how  much  of 
the  wear  of  track  is  due  to  each.  The  wear 
and  consequent  repair  of  engines  may  be  deter- 
mined from  the  careful  accounts  of  work  done  and 
repairs  made  on  each  class,  and  the  relative  cost 
and  work  may  be  ascertained  with  satisfactory 
approximation.  Beyond  this,  so  far  as  I  know, 
this  question  of  comparison  in  all  its  bearings  can 
only  be  estimated  from  the  statistics  of  mileage, 
and  long  and  careful  observation  of  the  influence 
of  weight  and  speed  on  the  track,  the  rolling  ma- 
cninery,  and  the  hazard  of  accidents  that  necessarily 
follow.  In  regard  to  the  latter,  their  number  must 
be  increased  by  high  speed ;  also  their  intensity  as 
to  damage  to  persons  and  property.  As  before 
observed,  we  have  no  exact  data  to  determine  the 
relative  cost  of  different  rates  of  speed :  some  have 
estimated  it  to  be  as  the  squares  of  the  velocity ; 
others  a  lower  rate  of  difference ;  my  own  opinion 
is,  that  on  the  whole  the  former  is  not  far  wrong. 
With  two  engines  of  suitable  weight,  one  to  hau' 
a  train  at  the  rate  of  twenty  miles  per  hour,  th  5 
other  to  take  the  same  train  thirty  miles  per  hour, 
the  cost  per  mile  for  the  train  having  a  speed  of 


J.56  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

twenty  miles  per  hour  may  be  approximately  esti- 
mated at  one-half  the  cost  of  a  train  having  a  speed 
of  thirty  miles  per  hour.  This  of  course  embraces 
not  only  the  engines,  but  the  cars,  coaches  and 
track,  all  of  which  suffer  increased  wear  and 
damage  from  increased  speed. 

At  the  celebrated  trial  of  engines,  on  the  opening 
of  the  Liverpool  and  Manchester  Railway,  the  suc- 
cessful competitor,  the  Rocket,  was  mounted  on 
four  wheels  ;  one  pair  driving  wheels  and  one  pair 
supporting  wheels.  This  plan  of  four-wheeled  en- 
gines, with  one  pair  of  drivers,  or  with  both  pairs 
connected  as  drivers,  continued  in  general  use  for 
several  years  in  England :  it  was  used  on  the  rail- 
ways of  this  country,  mostly  in  the  eastern  States, 
until  after  the  opening  of  the  western  railway  of 
Massachusetts;  and  down  to  1845,  was  more  or 
less  used  in  that  section.  In  1831,  the  Mohawk 
and  Hudson  Railway  Company  imported  an  engine 
from  England,  made  under  the  direction  of  George 
Stephenson,  the  distinguished  engineer  in  this  de- 
partment of  the  profession.  This  engine  was  on 
four  wheels,  all  drivers,  and  weighed  about  seven 
tons.  The  wheels  were  four  feet  diameter,  and  the 
axles  four  and  a  half  feet  apart,  or  from  centre  to 
centre.  The  performance  of  the  engine  was  at  that 
time  satisfactory  as  to  power.  The  frame  was 


LOCOMOTIVE    ENGINES.  157 

twelve  feet  long,  and  the  axles,  being  four  and  a 
half  feet  apart,  it  projected  beyond  the  bearing  on 
the  axles  near  four  feet  each  way.  It  was  readily 
observed  that  a  vertical  inequality  in  the  surface 
of  the  rails,  caused  a  vertical  motion  at  the  ends 
of  the  frame  of  about  double  this  inequality,  pro- 
ducing an  unsteady  and  shaking  motion  to  the 
frame  of  the  engine,  very  unfavorable  to  the 
machinery  and  the  engine-men.  It  was  further 
evident  that  this  leverage  action  of  the  frame  was 
unfavorable  to  the  track.  The  first  thought  for  a 
remedy  for  this  difficulty  was  to  spread  the  axles 
further  apart ;  but  to  do  this  to  such  an  extent  as 
would  materially  remedy  the  evil,  was  at  that  time 
considered  inadmissible,  on  account  of  the  in- 
creased labor  and  danger  it  would  cause  in  passing 
curves  in  the  line  of  railway.  The  track  of  the 
Mohawk  and  Hudson  company  was  a  well  con- 
structed one  of  the  kind,  very  direct,  and  in  good 
.order,  probably  as  smooth  at  the  time  referred  to 
as  any  railway  ;  it  was  a  flat  bar  or  plate  rail,  laid 
on  southern  pine  rail  timbers  well  secured ;  still, 
the  action  before  mentioned  was  very  unsatisfac- 
tory. 

My  observations  on  the  action  of  the  Mohawk 
and  Hudson  engine,  led  me  to  inquire  into  some 
means  of  providing  a  remedy.  There  had  been 


158  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

six-wheeled  engines  put  in  operation,  but  they  were 
on  a  single  frame,  the  third  pair  of  wheels  merely 
added  for  support,  and  all  worked  in  the  single 
rigid  frame ;  at  that  time  no  six- wheeled  engine,  or 
of  more  than  six  wheels,  had  been  successfully  run 
at  high  speed.  It  appeared  important  to  provide 
guiding  wheels  that  should  be  geared  favorably  to 
follow  the  track,  and  support  one  end  of  the  engine 
frame,  so  that  the  engine  and  all  its  working  parts 
would  be  supported  by  the  same  rigid  frame,  as  on 
the  four-wheeled  plan.  While  engaged  with  these 
considerations,  the  attempt  was  made  by  a  fellow- 
engineer,  to  mount  an  engine  on  eight  wheels, 
geared  as  two  wagons,  so  coupled  that  each  would 
be  free  to  conform  to  the  curves  of  the  rail,  and  the 
machinery  to  conform  to  the  changing  parallels  of 
the  two  wagons  by  movable  joints.  Here  was  the 
idea  of  working  two  wagons,  so  coupled  as  to  con- 
stitute an  eight-wheeled  vehicle,  but  without  a 
common  rigid  frame,  and  consequently  the  machi- 
nery, resting  on  two  separate  frames,  depended  on 
their  movable  joints  to  adapt  them  to  the  changes 
of  parallelism  constantly  taking  place  on  the  rail. 
A  similar  effort  had  previously  been  made,  to 
adapt  two  wagons  as  support  for  an  eight-wheeled 
engine  ;  but  the  plan  had  not  succeeded  in  a  man- 
ner to  be  practically  useful.  It  did  not  appear  to 


LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINES.  159 

me  thai;  any  plan  would  succeed,  that  did  not  pro- 
vide a  rigid  frame  for  the  engine  machinery.  The 
difficulty  appeared  to  be  in  obtaining  a  connection 
between  two  frames,  that  should  work  free  and  be 
secure  on  the  rail  under  high  speed.  There  was  no 
doubt  it  would  work  well  at  low  speed ;  but  no- 
thing of  the  kind  had  been  adapted  to,  or  pre- 
viously attempted  for  high  speed,  then  much  de- 
manded for  railway  travel.  Two  four-wheeled  cars, 
or  wagons,  had  been  coupled  together,  so  as  to  form 
one  eight-wheeled  car,  for  transporting  long  timber 
and.  heavy  stone,  but  it  gave  no  confidence  for 
high  speed. 

After  devoting  a  good  deal  of  labor  to  this  sub- 
ject, I  prepared  a  plan,  which  it  is  hardly  necessary 
to  describe  at  this  time,  as  it  is  in  general  use  in  the 
locomotives  of  this  country.  This  plan,  in  its 
general  features,  had  a  guiding  truck,  or  a  four- 
wheeled  car,  arranged  as  best  adapted  for  following 
curves  on  the  rail,  and  keeping  on  the  track,  and, 
at  the  same  time,  supporting  steadily  the  forward 
end  of  the  engine  frame.  The  plan  of  the  engine 
was  prepared  in  the  fall  of  1831,  and  sent  to  the 
West-Point  Foundry  Association,  who  built  the 
engine,  and  it  was  placed  on  the  track  of  the  Mo- 
hawk and  Hudson  Kailway  in  the  summer  of  1832. 
The  working  of  this  engine  (PAT?*'*  the  Brother 


160  EAILWAY   PROPERTY. 

Jonathan)  satisfied  me  that  the  truck  principle 
would  be  successful,  though  the  engine  was  not  so 
in  other  respects,  the  attempt  having  been  made  to 
adapt  the  boiler  to  the  use  of  anthracite  coal,  and 
this  required  to  be  changed,  which  was  done  the 
following  winter.  I  then  prepared  a  new  plan  for 
an  engine  for  the  Saratoga  and  Schenectady  Rail- 
way, following  substantially  the  same  plan,  except 
as  to  the  boiler,  and  sent  it  to  George  Stephenson, 
Esq.,  of  Liverpool,  who  constructed  the  engine,  and 
it  was  placed  on  the  Saratoga  and  Shenectady 
Kail  way  early  in  the  following  summer  (1833). 

As  this  truck  system  has  come  into  general  use 
in  this  country  (it  was  never  patented),  it  may  be 
interesting  to  refer  to  its  early  history,  as  put  on 
record  at  the  time,  and  I  therefore  think  I  may  be 
excused  in  making  the  following  quotation  from  the 
"American  Eailroad  Journal"  (1833),  vol.  ii.  p.  468. 

LOCOMOTIVE   STEAM   ENGINE.      BY   JOHN   B.    JERVIS. 

To  THE  EDITOR  OP  THE  AMERICAN  RAILROAD  JOURNAL. 

DEAR  SIR  :  The  locomotive  steam  engine  for  the  Saratoga  and 
Schenectady  Railroad,  of  which  I  promised  to  give  you  some 
account,  was  put  on  the  road  the  2d  inst.,  and  has  been  in  regular 
operation  since,  making  usually  two  trips  per  day  each  way,  equal 
84  miles,  and  carrying  daily  over  the  road  about  800  passengers. 

The  engine  was  made  by  George  Stephenson  &  Co.,  at  Newcastle, 
England.  The  boiler  has  tub  'lar  flues,  on  the  same  plan  as  all  ol 


LOCOMOTIVE   ENGINES.  161 

recent  construction  at  that  establishment.  The  leading  object  I 
had  in  view,  in  the  general  arrangement  of  the  plan  of  this  engine, 
did  not  contemplate  any  improvement  in  power,  over  those  hereto- 
fore constructed  by  G.  Stephenson  &  Co. ;  but  to  make  an  engine 
that  would  be  better  adapted  to  railroads  of  less  strength  than 
were  then  in  use  in  England ;  that  would  travel  with  more  ease  to 
itself,  and  to  the  rail  on  curved  roads — and  would  be  less  affected  by 
inequalities  in  the  rail,  than  is  attained  by  the  arrangement  by  the 
most  approved  engines. 

You  are  aware  of  the  fact,  that  the  Saratoga  and  Schenectady 
rail  is  constructed  with  timber,  capped  with  an  iron  plate.  This 
kind  of  road  cannot  be  expected  to  bear  as  heavy  weight  on  the 
wheels  of  its  carriages  as  those  that  have  an  entire  iron  rail ;  and, 
in  order  to  obtain  that  degree  of  power  which  is  desirable  for  an 
engine  intended  for  high  speed,  it  becomes  an  object  to  put  the . 
weight  on  six  wheels,  instead  of  four.  Engines  mounted  on  six 
wheels  were  constructed  several  years  ago  in  England.  The  object 
was  to  distribute  the  weight  on  more  points,  to  make  them  easier 
for  the  road  than  the  four-wheeled  engines ;  for  even  with  the  iron 
rail,  the  heavier  carriage  is  injurious  to  the  road.  There  was  diffi- 
culty, however,  in  the  practical  operation  of  the  plan  adopted. 
The  load  was  found  to  bear  at  times  very  unequally  on  different 
wheels,  owing  to  the  inequalities  in  the  road  ;  and  having  all  their 
wheels  under  one  frame,  they  did  not  work  as  well  on  curved  roads 
as  the  four-wheeled  engines,  which  could  be  geared  much  shorter. 
In  consequence  mainly  of  these  difficulties,  the  six-wheeled  engines 
were  abandoned,  and  I  believe  no  attempt  has  since  been  made  in 
England  to  use  more  than  four  wheels.* 

In  the  Saratoga  engine,  I  have  adopted  two  distinct  frames.    One 

*  Since  the  above  was  written,  six-wheeled  engines  have  been 
mostly  adopted  in  England  and  other  parts  of  Europe;  and  will  be 
noticed  hereafter. 


162  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

frame  embraces  four  wheels  in  the  same  manner  as  a  common 
wagon  :  these  wheels  are  small  (32  inches)  in  diameter  and  of  uni- 
form size ;  one  end  of  the  second  frame  is  mounted  on  the  third 
pair  of  wheels,  which  are  the  working  wheels,  and  the  other  end  ia 
rested  on  friction  rollers,  in  the  centre  of  the  first  frame,  to  which 
it  is  secured  by  a  strong  centre  pin.  The  small  wheels,  with  their 
frame,  work  on  the  road  the  same  as  an  independent  wagon  ;  and 
being  geared  short,  they  go  round  a  curve  with  as  much  ease  as  a 
common  wagon,  and  being  leaders,  they  bring  round  the  working 
wheels,  and  the  large  frame  on  which  the  whole  machinery  of  the  en- 
gine rests,  with  as  much  ease  as  practicable.  By  this  method  it  will 
be  seen  the  engine  may  pass  a  curve  with  the  same  ease  as  a  com- 
mon railroad  carriage,  having  the  same  weight  on  the  wheels.  The 
machinery  of  the  engine  is  not  affected  by  the  curve  motion  of 
the  carriage.  In  order  to  give  the  four-wheeled  engine  carriage  as 
much  facility  as  practicable  in  turning  curves,  the  wheels  have  gen- 
erally been  placed  near  together,  bringing  the  bearing  points  of 
the  frame  so  near  the  centre,  in  a  longitudinal  direction,  as  to 
cause  the  inequalities  of  the  rail  to  produce  increased  motion  at 
the  ends  of  the  frame,  and  consequently  to  the  engine  and  boiler 
which  is  connected  with  it.  This,  in  the  English  engine  belonging 
to  the  Mohawk  and  Hudson  company,  was  such  as  to  make  the 
motion  very  unfavorable  to  the  engine,  and  severe  on  the  road. 
By  allowing  the  bearing  points  to  be  near  the  ends  of  the  large 
frame,  and  resting  one  of  these  points  on  the  centre  of  the  small 
frame,  as  is  done  in  the  Saratoga  engine,  the  difficulty  is  almost 
entirely  remedied. 

The  engine  was  set  up  at  the  shop  of  the  Mohawk  and  Hudson 
Railroad  Company,  under  the  direction  of  Mr.  Asa  Whitney,  the 
present  superintendent  of  that  road,  and  who  has  from  the  com- 
mencement, had  charge  of  the  machine-shop  connected  with  it. 

Thus  far,  the  engine  appears  to  do  all  that  was  anticipated  fro  it 


LOCOMOTIVE   ENGINES.  163 

i*  No  test  has  yet  been  made  of  its  power  ;  but,  from  the  rapidity 
with  which  it  generates  steam,  there  appears  no  doubt  of  its  per- 
forming all  that  it  was  calculated  to  do.  It  passes  a  curve  without 
any  more  appearance  of  labor  than  a  well-geared  common  carriage. 
The  principle  of  its  arrangement  does  not  admit  of  more  strain 
coming  on  any  one  wheel  than  is  assigned  for  its  regular  labor. 
The  motion  of  the  engine  is  highly  satisfactory ;  it  moves  with 
almost  as  smooth  and  steady  motion  as  a  stationary  engine ;  it 
travels  over  the  road  in  an  elegant  and  graceful  style. 

I  made  a  plan  for  a  six-wheeled  engine  for  the  Mohawk  and 
Hudson  road,  which  was  completed  and  put  in  operation  before  I 
made  the  plan  for  the  Saratoga  engine.  This  engine  proved  satis- 
factory so  far  as  regarded  the  principle  of  a  six-wheeled  carriage, 
and  was  an  important  pioneer  for  the  second  plan.  The  superior 
ease  with  which  this  engine  moved,  both  for  its  own  machinery 
and  the  road,  led  to  the  determination  to  alter  the  English  engine 
on  the  Mohawk  and  Hudson  road,  so  that  it  could  be  placed  on  a 
six-wheeled  carriage.  As  the  engine  was  particularly  arranged  for 
four  wheels,  this  could  not  conveniently  be  done  in  any  other  way 
than  by  communicating  the  power  through  the  intervention  of  a 
bell  crank,*  which  was  very  successfully  done  by  Mr.  Whitney. 
This  engine  is  now  working  on  six  wheels,  and  the  ease  and 
smoothness  of  her  motion,  over  that  she  had  when  on  four  wheels, 
is  very  striking. 

The  arrangement  on  six  wheels  does  not  admit  of  the  wheels 
under  the  main  frame  being  connected  with  those  under  the  small 
frame  ;  consequently,  we  can  only  obtain  the  adhesion  of  one  pair 
of  wheels.  This,  however,  is  hardly  of  any  importance  where  high 
speed  is  wanted. 

Should  further  experience  confirm  what  the  operations  thus  far 

*  An  improved  method  has  since  been  adopted,  and  will  be  dis 
cussed  hereafter. 


164  RAILWAY   PROPERTY. 

appear  to  warrant,  the  plan  of  the  Saratoga  engine  may  be  viewed 
as  a  valuable  improvement.  She  has  used  for  fuel  a  coke  of  in- 
ferior quality,  made  in  New  York,  with  which  she  has  worked  very 
well.  Yours,  etc., 

JOHN  B.  JKRVIS. 
ALBANY,  18th  July,  1833. 

From  what  has  been  stated  in  the  preceding 
pages,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  truck  arrangement 
was  adapted  to  an  engine  with  only  one  pair  of 
driving  wheels.  At  that  time,  passenger  engines 
were  mostly  made  with  one  pair  of  drivers,  even  for 
four-wheeled  engines,  both  in  this  country  and  in 
Europe;  and  the  practice  has  more  or  less  pre- 
vailed, to  within  ten  years  of  the  present  time,  and 
is  still,  I  think,  the  prevalent  plan  of  English  pas- 
senger engines.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  a 
single  pair  of  drivers  work  more  kindly,  easier  for 
the  rail  and  the  engine,  and  will  do  more  work  for 
its  power,  than  any  others.  To  give  a  better 
support,  and  to  relieve  the  weight  on  the  driving 
wheels,  a  pair  of  trailing  wheels,  usually  termed 
relief  wheels,  were  placed  behind  the  drivers, 
receiving  a  portion  of  the  weight  of  the  fire-box. 
As  engines  were  enlarged,  this  method  of  support 
Wf»s  the  first  measure  adopted  in  England  to  obtain 
for  modern  engines  the  benefit  of  six  wheels.  But 
as  the  want  of  increased  power  grew  with  the 
development  cf  railway  traffic,  more  drivers  were 


LOCOMOTIVE   ENGINES.  105 

wanted  to  give  the  necessary  adhesion  to  the  rail. 
This  was  more  especially  required  for  freight 
engines,  and  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  for  passen- 
ger engines.  It  did  not  require  much  time  to 
adapt  the  arrangement  to  two  pair  of  drivers,  and 
to  some  extent  three  pair  have  been  adopted,  and 
used  with  favor  by  some  railway  managers.  Still 
the  truck  is  generally,  and  almost  invariably  used 
as  the  leading  wheels,  supporting  the  forward  end 
of  the  engine  frame.  Comparatively  a  very  small 
number  of  freight  engines  are  made  with  three  pair 
of  drivers,  without  a  leading  truck,  and  those  that 
have  been  tried,  as  far  as  I  know,  are  but  little 
esteemed ;  they  are  very  severe  on  the  track,  acd 
subject  to  heavy  repairs. 

Some  of  the  truck  engines  were  sent  to  England ; 
but  were  not  received  with  favor.  When  in  that 
country,  in  1850,  I  endeavored  to  ascertain  the  ob- 
jection to  them ;  and  the  only  one  I  was  able  to 
learn,  was  an  impression  that  they  would  not  keep 
the  track  well  under  high  speed.  If  this  had  been 
a  good  objection  there,  it  certainly  would  have 
been  here ;  but  no  such  difficulty  has  been  expe- 
rienced with  us.  We  have  tried  the  principle 
thoroughly,  and  in  fact  carried  it  to  extremes,  in 
the  close  gearing  of  the  truck,  barely  giving 
clearance  to  the  wheels  in  the  line  of  track  ;  which 


166  RAILWAY   PROPERTY. 

is  the  worst  position  that  can  be  given  to  the 
wheels,  for  safety  in  keeping  the  track.  A  truck, 
or  what  is  the  same  thing,  a  railway  wagon  on  four 
wheels,  should  not  have  its  two  pair  of  wheels 
either  too  close  together,  or  too  far  apart ;  in  either 
case  it  is  more  liable  to  leave  the  track  ;  it  does  not 
work  easy  when  too  long,  and  is  unsteady  when  too 
short.  It  is  better  for  the  track,  and  also  for  steadi- 
ness of  motion,  to  have  the  truck  wheels  as  far 
apart  as  is  consistent  with  easy  movement  on  the 
track  ;  and  I  have  never  seen  a  good  reason  for  the 
fashion  that  prevailed  very  much  a  few  years  since, 
of  very  close  gearing  of  the  truck.  Four  and 
a-half  to  five  feet  between  centres  of  axles,  may  be 
regarded  as  securing  a  good  result.  But  notwith- 
standing errors  in  close  gearing,  nothing  has  oc- 
curred in  this  country  to  impair  confidence  in  the 
safety  of  the  truck  engine  for  keeping  the  track. 

In  regard  to  locomotive  engines  in  the  railway 
practice  of  Europe,  the  English  plan,  and  to  a  great 
extent  the  English  manufacture,  has  been  adopted. 
They  found  the  four-wheeled  engines  insufficient  for 
the  enlarging  demands  of  traffic ;  and  soon  adopted, 
as  before  noted,  the  third  pair,  called  trailing 
wheels ;  the  leading  and  the  trailing  wheels  were 
small,  and  the  drivers  (one  pair)  were  placed  be- 
tween them.  As  before  observed,  the  engines,  in 


LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINES.  167 

the  early  history  of  railways  (reference  being  had 
to  the  time  subsequent  to  the  trial  on  the  Liverpool 
and  Manchester  Railway),  had  generally  but  one 
pair  of  drivers  ;  and  this  was  continued  as  the  gene- 
ral practice  for  passenger  engines  in  England  down 
to  1850,  at  which  time  very  few  had  two  pair  of 
drivers  ;  and,  as  before  stated,  this  is  believed  to  be 
the  prevalent  practice  at  this  time.  The  freight 
traffic  required  more  adhesion,  and  for  this  service, 
the  trailing  wheels  gave  place  to  a  pair  of  drivers. 
In  all  these  arrangements  on  English  engines,  the 
six- wheeled  engines  had  all  their  wheels  attached 
to  one  frame,  and  worked  on  the  track  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  four-wheeled,  except  that  the  frame 
was  longer,  and  the  bearing  of  the  front  and  rear 
wheels  nearer  the  ends  of  the  frame.  It  will  be 
perceived  that  no  ease  in  the  working  on  the  track 
was  gained  by  this,  over  the  four-wheeled  plan  ;  it 
is,  in  fact,  so  far  as  the  movement  of  the  carriage 
part  of  the  engine  is  affected,  the  same  as  to  extend 
the  four  wheels  to  the  same  distance  apart  as  the 
leading  and  trailing  wheels  are  placed,  and  the  third 
pair,  whether  as  trailing  or  driving,  are  merely  so 
much  additional  support  to  the  engine.  It  is,  there- 
fore, apparent  that  the  English  six  wheeled  engine 
has  all  the  objections  of  a  long-geared  railway  wagon 
in  passing  curves.  To  remedy  the  oscillating  mo- 


168  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

tion,  both  lateral  and  vertical,  the  front  and  rear 
wheels  have  been  spread  from  four  and  a  half  feet, 
to  ten,  twelve,  and  even  fourteen  feet  apart.  On  a 
railway  nearly  straight,  there  would  be  no  objection 
to  this  ;  but  railways  are  not  all  straight,  either  in 
Europe  or  America,  and  all  must  have  turn-outs 
from  one  track  to  another,  that  necessarily  require 
pretty  sharp,  if  not  very  sharp  curves.  In  England 
they  have  been  more  liberal  in  expenditure  to  secure 
a  good  direction  of  line,  than  we  have  in  this  coun- 
try; but  the  more  favorable  formation  of  surface 
with  us,  has  allowed  us  to  make  lines  that,  on  the 
whole,  will  compare  favorably  with  theirs.  The 
superior  ease  in  the  movement  in  the  truck  engine 
on  curved  rails,  over  that  of  the  long-geared,  rigid 
frame  of  the  English  engine,  is  so  manifest  to  an 
intelligent  observer,  that  it  seems  strange  that  Eu- 
ropean engineers  should  not  appreciate  it,  and  that 
they  should  continue  to  discard  it  after  the  experi- 
ence of  this  country  has  so  long  given  unequivocal 
preference  to  its  use,  on  three  times  the  length  of 
railway  they  have  in  England.  I  saw  a  few  truck 
engines  in  Belgium,  in  1850,  and  at  this  time,  I 
believe,  a  large  proportion  of  those  used  in  Russia 
are  of  this  kind.  That  the  English  should  at  first 
have  entertained  the  apprehension  that  the  truck- 
would  be  liable  to  leave  the  track,  did  not  surprise 


LOCOMOTIVE   ENGINES.  109 

me,  for  this  was  the  most  serious  apprehension  in 
my  own  mind  when  engaged  on  the  plan,  at  a  time 
when  no  such  machine,  or  any  double  car  or  wagon, 
had  been  successfully  used  for  any  purpose  but  such 
as  admitted  slow  speed — as  in  transporting  long 
timber  or  other  heavy  material  for  short  distances. 
But  more  than  twenty  years  of  experience,  and 
most  of  the  time  on  thousands  of  miles  of  railway 
in  this  country,  would  appear  to  afford  experience 
enough  to  satisfy  them  of  the  groundless  nature  of 
their  fears.  Perhaps  they  do  not  respect  our  prac- 
tice as  much  we  do  theirs,  and  hence  our  advan- 
tage. 

In  all  that  relates  to  thorough  building,  and  in 
avoiding  all  tinsel  in  their  engines,  the  English  are 
our  superiors.  It  would  be  much  better  for  us,  if 
we  substituted  wrought  iron  for  much  of  our  cast 
iron  material,  and  left  off  the  brass  ornaments, 
which  are  not  in  sound  taste  on  a  machine  that  is 
made  to  perform  work,  and  not  for  show.  An 
English  engine  is  black,  with  very  little  bright  work, 
except  where  it  is  necessary  to  reduce  friction  in 
the  moving  parts. 

I  have  been  somewhat  particular  in  my  remarks 
on  the  truck  engine.  It  is  proper  that  I  should 
state  frankly  that  I  have  two  objects  for  this :  first, 
the  truck  has  proved  to  be  a  highly  important 

8 


170  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

improvement  in  the  locomotive  engine — is  of  Ame- 
rican origin,  and  the  credit  is  due  to  American 
engineering.  In  this  view  it  is  interesting  to  all 
who  have  a  taste  for  inquiring  into  the  origin  of 
valuable  improvements,  and  who  desire  a  reliable 
history  of  them  ;  and  secondly,  it  is  due  to  myself 
that  the  public  should  understand  that  I  was  the 
inventor,  and  had  the  sole  responsibility  of  intro- 
ducing this  improvement  in  railway  machinery. 
As  I  took  no  patent  for  the  invention,  that  kind  of 
publicity  has  not  been  enjoyed  ;  and  very  few  per- 
sons who  now  use  the  engine,  have  the  least  idea  to 
whom  the  railway  public  is  indebted  for  its  intro- 
duction. I  do  not  complain ;  as  an  American 
engineer,  it  was  a  satisfactory  compensation  to  be 
able  to  present  to  the  railway  interest  a  valuable 
improvement,  and  to  see  it  rapidly  dissipate  in  this 
country  the  preference  that,  in  many  quarters,  had 
been  tenaciously  given  to  the  English  plan. 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  preceding  remarks  that 
the  truck  engine  is  materially  different  from  ttue 
English,  and  in  our  country  it  so  completely 
takes  the  precedence  on  nearly  thirty  thousand 
miles  of  railway,  as  to  lead  to  the  belief  that  it  will 
eventually  do  the  same  in  Europe. 

It  has  been  stated  that  a  single  pair  of  driving 
wheels  work  more  favorably  to  the  ease  of  the 


LOCOMOTIVE   ENGINES.  171 

engine  than  two  pair ;  and  so  far  as  the  adhesion 
can  be  obtained  without  too  great  weight  on  one 
pair,  it  is  the  best  engine,  especially  for  high  speed. 
The  coupling  of  two  pair  of  drivers  increases  the 
number  of  parts,  and  the  slightest  difference  in  the 
diameters  of  the  two  pair  coupled  together,  causes 
severe  strain  on  the  working  parts  of  the  engine 
and  increases  the  wear  on  the  rail.  The  English 
continue  this  plan  up  to  a  weight  of  five  and  six 
tons  on  a  wheel,  which  not  only  requires  a  strong 
rail  to  support  it,  but  is  attended  with  severe  wear 
both  on  rail  and  engine.  My  opinion  is,  that  one 
pair  of  drivers  with  three-fourths  the  weight  of 
two,  will  do  the  work  of  two  pair  for  high  speed, 
with  more  ease  to  the  engine  and  less  wear  on  the 
track.  In  this  country,  at  the  present  day,  an 
engine  with  one  pair  of  drivers  is  rarely  seen. 
For  passenger  service,  if  the  work  required  can  be 
done  with  an  engine  having  about  six  tons  on  one 
pair,  or  three  tons  on  a  wheel,  it  will  be  the  best 
economy  to  adopt  one  pair ;  and  on  railways  having 
a  large  passenger  traffic,  requiring  high  speed,  I 
should  prefer  four  tons  on  a  wheel  with  one  pair, 
to  three  tons  on  a  wheel  with  two  pair. 

Passenger  engines  designed  for  high  speed,  where 
t  may  be  important  to  secure  punctuality  in  the 
time,  in  their  connections  with  other  railways  form 


172  RAILWAY   PROPERTY. 

ing  portions  of  a  general  line,  must  be  provided 
with  power  to  meet  difficulties  beyond  what  would 
be  otherwise  necessary ;  such  as  strong  head  winds, 
an  unfavorable  state  of  the  rail,  and  to  make  up 
time  that  may  be  lost  by  incidental  delays.  The 
importance  of  punctuality  in  these  connections  de- 
pends mainly  on  the  position  of  a  rival  line,  and,  if 
often  missed,  the  reputation  of  the  line  will  suffer, 
and  the  importance  in  this  respect  will  depend  on 
the  value  of  the  traffic  in  competition.  Rivalry  is  a 
feature  in  railway  affairs  that  tends  greatly  to 
increase  expenses,  and  no  doubt  it  often  happens  in 
these  struggles  that  the  traffic  secured  costs  more 
than  it  is  worth.  The  local  traffic  of  a  railway  may 
be  done  with  more  definite  calculations  for  economy ; 
there  is  no  necessity  of  running  power  in  excess, 
and  often  to  great  waste,  as  is  frequently  the  case 
in  rivalry  with  other  lines  ;  and  hence,  so  far  as 
regards  the  local  traffic,  or  any  other  that  is  not 
affected  by  competition,  the  power  of  the  engine 
may  be  economically  arranged  to  provide  for  it. 

Freight  engines  should  be  designed  to  travel 
slowly,  and  to  these  the  objection  to  connected  driv- 
ers is  not  so  important,  and  the  necessity  of  greater 
adhesion  will  generally  determine  in  favor  of  that 
plan.  The  weight  and  power  of  freight  engines 
will  depend  on  the  extent  of  the  traffic.  On  a 


LOCOMOTIVE   ENGINES.  173 

double  track,  they  may  be  arranged  so  as  to  make 
the  most  economical  transportation ;  for  in  this  case 
the  number  of  trains  may  be  increased  to  meet 
almost  any  amount  of  traffic;  but  on  a  single 
track  railway  there  may  be  a  difficulty  in  sending 
as  many  trains  as  the  freight  may  require,  and 
larger  trains  than  otherwise  desirable  must  be  made 
up,  and  of  course  an  engine  of  larger  power,  or 
duplicate  engine,  must  be  employed  to  haul  it 
The  latter  plan  is  often  adopted,  either  by  dividing 
the  train  into  sections,  or  by  coupling  two  engines 
together ;  each  of  these  methods  has  its  advocates, 
while  neither  is  much  liked,  the  preference  being 
generally  given  to  one  engine  of  sufficient  power  to 
do  the  work  alone,  if  that  be  practicable.  The 
latter  mode  is  certainly  the  most  simple,  while  its 
economy  in  many  cases  is  more  than  doubtful. 
An  engine  best  adapted  for  a  freight  train,  with  a 
judicious  time  table,  will,  in  nine  cases  out  of  ten, 
haul  the  train,  and  the  inconvenience  of  occasionally 
putting  the  train  in  two  or  more  sections,  to  meet 
an  extra  run  of  freight,  is  a  trifle  compared  to  the 
injury  of  an  engine  that  must  always  take  the  train, 
whether  large  or  small.  So  long,  however,  as 
single  track  railways  prevail,  there  will  be  an 
excuse  for  a  class  of  larger  freight  engines  than  is 
profitable  for  a  railway.  The  question  for  the 


174  JRAILWAY    PR..PERTY.7 

engineer  is,  to  consider  well  the  character  of  the 
railway  and  the  traffic  it  is  to  carry,  and  design  the 
engines  of  all  classes  on  the  plan  that  will  conduct 
the  anticipated  service  with  the  greatest  net  profit. 
In  this  the  engineer  will  bear  in  mind  the  wear 
and  repairs  of  track,  as  well  as  that  of  the  engines 
and  will  find  it  a  field  requiring  his  best  judgment 
and  experience. 

In  this  country  wood  has  been  the  usual  fuel  for 
locomotive  engines.  Coke  has  mostly  been  used  in 
England,,  and  is  a  much  more  convenient  fuel  than 
wood ;  it  does  not  require,  as  the  wood-burning 
engines  do,  a  screen  or  spark  arrester,  to  prevent  the 
escape  of  small  burning  coals  or  cinders,  carried 
through  the  smoke-pipe  from  wood.  This  spark 
arrester  diminishes  the  power  of  the  engine,  and  is  a 
heavy  appendage  to  the  machine.  Coke  is  a  very 
convenient  fuel ;  it  is  of  less  weight  and  much  less 
bulk  than  wood,  per  mile  run.  They  have  been 
compelled  to  use  coke  in  England,  not  being 
allowed  to  use  coal,  which  is  a  much  cheaper  fuel, 
on  account  of  the  smoke,  which  seems  to  be  a  very 
offensive  thing  to  an  Englishman :  but  recently,  it  is 
said,  a  mode  of  consuming  the  smoke,  by  introduc- 
ing a  volume  of  atmospheric  air,  so  as  to  unite  with 
the  gases  and  smoke  as  they  rise  from  the  surface 
of  the  burning  coal,  causes  so  complete  a  combus- 


LOCOMOTIVE    ENGINES.  175 

tion,  that  no  smoke  of  consequence  escapes  from  the 
smoke-pipe.  If  this  shall  be  found  by  experience 
to  succeed,  it  will  greatly  improve  the  economy  of 
fuel  in  English  engines,  and  in  all  others  where 
bituminous  coal  of  good  quality  can  be  cheaply  had. 
Coal  has  been  used  in  this  country  for  several  years 
in  freight  engines,  and  to  some  extent,  recently,  in 
passenger  engines;  the  question  must  be  onet  of 
increasing  importance,  as  wood  becomes  scarce  and 
dear,  which  in  some  parts  is  already  the  case. 
Coal,  however,  in  most  parts  of  this  country,  is 
dearer  than  in  England.  Even  the  anthracite  is 
more  expensive,  and  good  bituminous  coal,  suitable 
for  locomotive  engines,  can  only  be  had  east  of 
the  Alleghany  range  by  the  cost  of  long  trans- 
portation. Still,  there  are  many  railways  on  the 
Atlantic  district,  that  will  find  bituminous  coal  to 
be  cheaper  than  wood.  There  have  been  several 
attempts  to  use  anthracite  coal  in  locomotive 
engines,  and  I  believe  it  to  have  succeeded  very 
well  in  some  cases,  for  low  speed,  as  required  for 
freight  trains. 

In  the  western  States  there  is  a  large  supply  of 
bituminous  coal,  some  of  which  is  of  very  good 
quality,  but  a  large  portion  is  inferior  and  will 
only  be  used  from  necessity;  and  this  necessity 
will,  no  doubt,  bring  much  of  it  into  use  in  the 


176  RAILWAY   PROPERTY. 

prairie  districts,,  where  wood  is  scarce;  and  the 
engines  must  be  adapted  to  use  the  fuel  that  can  be 
obtained  with  the  greatest  economy.  There  are  many 
railways  in  this  country  situated  so  that  they  can 
purchase  good  wood,  delivered  at  their  stations  for 
$1  50  to  $2  50  per  cord ;  in  such  cases,  coal  will  not 
supersede  wood,  except  in  those  localities  that  fur- 
nislj  a  good  article  at  a  low  price.  The  engineer 
will  see  that  the  question  of  fuel  to  be  used  in 
engines,  will  depend  on  the  price  and  relative 
quality  at  which  the  different  kinds  can  be  obtained, 
tor  the  locality  to  be  provided  for. 


COACHES    AND   CARS.  1/7 


CHAPTEE  XIY. 

O-O  ACHES     AND     CABS. 

THE  trains  used  in  England  for  railway  vehicles 
are,  namely,  wagons,  for  such  as  are  adapted  to 
freight,  and  coaches,  for  those  adapted  to  passengers. 
In  this  country  the  term  car  has  generally  been 
adopted  for  all  railway  vehicles,  though  to  some  ex- 
tent the  term  coach  has  been  used  for  passenger  cars. 
The  term  car  has  the  advantage  of  brevity,  and  of 
signifying  a  vehicle  adapted  to  a  railway,  as  contra- 
distinguished from  the  vehicles  of  ordinary  roads. 
If  we  adopt  the  term  coach,  for  passengers,  it  must 
have  the  prefix  of  railway,  to  distinguish  it  from 
coaches  used  on  common  roads,  so  we  do  not  abbre- 
viate or  cut  off  the  prefix  by  this  term ;  the  prefix 
is  necessary  in  either  case,  to  hold  the  distinction 
between  vehicles  adapted  to  freight,  and  those  for 
passengers  on  the  railway.  If  the  term  coach  be 
adopted,  then  to  make  the  distinction  complete,  it 
must  be  railway  coach ;  and  in  the  other,  or  Ameri- 
can term,  passenger  car;  between  these  there  is 

8* 


178  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

little  to  choose  for  brevity  in  writing,  and  one  may 
be  considered  as  easy  of  pronunciation  as  the  other. 
In  the  ordinary  intercourse  of  the  operations,  in 
using  the  term  coach  for  passenger,  the  railway 
prefix  would  be  omitted,  whereas,  in  the  term  car, 
the  prefix  of  passenger  must  be  used ;  the  advan- 
tage, therefore,  of  brevity  and  convenience  in  the 
parlance  of  the  station,  is  in  favor  of  coach.  The 
term  car,  if  applied  exclusively  to  freight  vehicles, 
nas  the  advantage  of  sufficient  distinction  from 
other  railway  vehicles,  and  from  those  on  common 
roads.  If,  therefore,  the  term  coach  is  applied  to 
vehicles  for  the  conveyance  of  passengers,  and  the 
term  car  to  those  for  freight,  baggage,  etc.,  we  shall 
secure  terms,  expressive,  and  of  the  greatest  brevity 
and  convenience  for  the  use  of  the '  operatives  on 
the  railway,  and  shall  lose  nothing  in  writing.  The 
full  terms  will  then  be,  railway  coach,  freight  car, 
baggage  car,  platform  car,  cattle  car,  gravel  car, 
and  hand  car.  All,  except  the  coach,  are  in  general 
use  in  this  country,  and  as  before  observed,  to  some 
extent,  this  is  also  used.  These  terms  will  be 
adopted  in  the  following  remarks  on  this  branch  of 
the  subject,  as  best  calculated  to  serve  general  con- 
venience, and  not  inconsistent  with  usage. 

Railway  coaches  and  cars  were  formerly  four- 
wheeled  vehicles,  and  this  was  the  general  practice 


COACHES   AND   CABS.  179 

down  to  1838.  Shortly  previous  to  this  date,  the  plan 
of  eight- wheeled  coaches  and  cars  began  to  be  intro- 
duced in  this  country,  and  they  are  now  in  general 
use  for  both  freight  and  passenger  traffic.  It  will 
require  no  labor  to  show  that  the  plan  was  simply  a 
duplication  of  the  truck  of  the  locomotive  engine, 
then,  and  for  several  years  previous,  in  successful 
operation.  The  truck  that  would  work  successfully 
for  the  leaders  of  an  engine,  could  not  fail  to  work 
for  a  car ;  and  if  it  worked  for  leaders,  there  could 
be  no  doubt  it  would  work  equally  well  for  the 
hind,  or  trailing  end  of  the  car.  In  this  way  two 
trucks  were  adapted  to  take  the  place  of  two  pair 
of  wheels,  supporting  the  upper  frame  at  both  ends, 
in  the  same  way  as  the  truck  supported  the  forward 
end  of  the  engine.  Such  a  coach  or  car,  it  was 
easy  to  see,  would  run  equally  well  in  either  direc- 
tion. The  frame  of  the  coach  or  car,  resting  on  the 
centre  of  the  truck,  would  secure  to  its  motion 
the  same  advantage  of  steadiness,  that  it  gave  the 
engine,  and  the  same  facilities  for  easy  and  safe 
working  on  curve  lines  of  rail.  From  its  action,  as 
described  on  engines,  it  will  be  perceived,  that  the 
truck  may  be  made  so  as  to  pass  curves  with  the 
greatest  ease  and  safety  that  is  attainable.  The 
ends  of  a  four-wheeled  car,  extending  about  as 
much  from  the  bearing  point  on  the  axle,  as  the 


180  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

axles  were  from  each  other,  produced  at  the  ends 
of  the  frame,  double  the  amount  of  vertical  and 
horizontal  vibration  that  occurred  at  the  wheels,  or 
bearing  point  on  the  rail ;  whereas,  in  the  truck 
arrangement,  the  motion  of  the  main  frame  at  the 
point  where  it  rests  on  the  centre  of  the  truck  (near 
the  end  of  the  main  frame)  is  only  half  as  much  as 
that  due  to  the  motion  of  the  truck  wheels,  thereby 
reducing  the  horizontal  and  vertical  motions  of  the 
end  of  the  frame  to  a  trifle  over  one  quarter  of 
what  they  were  in  the  four-wheeled  arrangement. 

The  four-wheeled  coach  was  made  for  the  seating 
of  eighteen  to  twenty-four  passengers.  The  eight- 
wheeled  coach  was  originally  made  for  seating 
thirty-six  to  forty  persons,  and  has  been  increased 
in  size  to  provide  for  seventy-two ;  but  the  general 
rule  at  this  time  is  to  provide  for  sixty  seats. 
Coaches  have  been  made  with  six- wheeled  trucks, 
and  some  of  this  kind  are  now  in  use,  but  they  are 
not  generally  regarded  with  favor,  and  very  few 
railway  managers  adopt  them.  The  four-wheeled 
truck  is  more  simple,  has  less  friction,  and  meets 
every  requirement  that  is  desirable.  The  only 
thing  gained  by  the  six-wheeled  truck,  is  more 
wheels,  and  the  capacity  for  a  larger  coach,  which  I 
do  not  consider  economical  in  the  working  of  the 
railway.  The  four-wheeled  truck  is  a  very  simple 


COACHES    AND    CABS.  181 

machine,  and  is  adapted  to  produce  the  best  motion, 
with  the  least  friction,  and  admits  the  form  that 
will  traverse  curve  rails  with  the  greatest  ease  and 
safety.  It  admits  as  large  a  coach  as  is  wanted, 
with  the  least  number  and  weight  of  wheels  re- 
quired to  secure  its  peculiar  advantagss ;  and  may 
be  "made  to  reduce  the  pressure  on  the  rail,  by 
reducing  the  coach  to  the  same  capacity  as  the 
four-wheeled  coach. 

Large  coaches  are  regarded  by  some  persons 
as  more  safe  for  passengers  than  small  ones.  E"o 
doubt  a  strong  coach  is  safer  than  a  weak  one ; 
and  a  large  coach  is  necessarily  weaker  than  a 
small  one,  if  its  weight  is  in  the  simple  propor- 
tion of  the  relative  sizes.  To  make  a  large  coach 
as  safe  as  a  small  one,  its  weight  and  strength 
must  be  in  geometrical  instead  of  direct  propor- 
tion. The  danger  of  injury  from  accidents,  arises 
mostly  from  the  momentum  of  the  train,  and  the 
question  is,  what  size  of  coaches  in  the  train  will 
experience  a  sudden  check  to  the  momentum  the 
most  severely.  If  there  was  but  one  coach  in  the 
train,  and  that  of  the  size  of  five  ordinary  coaches, 
the  momentum  would  all  be  in  that  one  coach, 
%nd  the  whole  action  would  be  instantaneous ;  but 
if  the  train  was  in  five  coaches,  they  would  all  be 
separated  a  lew  inches,  and  the  first  coach,  at  the 


RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

instant  of  meeting  an  obstruction,  would  only  act  by 
its  own  momentum,  and  the  second,  as  it  came  up, 
would  first  act  on  its  buffer  springs,  which  would 
modify  its  force,  and  between  the  instant  of  time 
and  the  action  of  the  buffer  springs,  the  momentum 
would  be  somewhat  checked ;  and  so  to  the  last 
coach,  the  joints,  the  small  separation,  and  the 
action  of  the  buffer  springs,  would  reduce  the  mo- 
mentum of  the  train  by  dividing  its  power.  It  is, 
therefore,  obvious  that  small  coaches  tend  to  check 
or  to  ameliorate  the  force  of  momentum,  and  thereby 
reduce  the  severity  of  its  action  and  the  danger  to 
the  train. 

When  the  eight-wheeled  coaches  were  first  intro- 
duced, it  was  believed,  that  in  cases  of  accident, 
they  were  not  as  liable  to  overset  as  the  small  four- 
wheeled  coaches,  which  I  think  was  true  at  that 
time ;  but  as  speed  has  increased,  it  is  quite  com- 
mon for  them  to  be  upset,  in  accidents  by  which 
they  are  thrown  from  the  track,  and  the  roof  and 
floor  badly  broken  up.  If  the  coach,  large  or  small, 
when  thrown  from  the  track,  is  strong  enough  to 
resist  breaking  up,  there  is  not  usually  much  perso- 
nal injury  to  passengers.  There  is,  doubtless,  a 
medium  for  the  size  of  coach  that  is  most  safe,  and 
I  think  a  forty-seated  coach  is  as  good,  and  quite  as 
\ikely  to  be  safe  as  any  larger  size. 


COACHES   AND   CARS.  183 

In  England,  and  generally  in  Europe,  the  mana- 
gers adhere  to  the  single  frame  in  coaches  and  cars, 
not  having  adopted  the  double  frame,  or  truck  plan. 
In  their  railway  coaches  they  have  generally  spread 
their  wheels  further  apart,  so  as  to  reduce  the  mo- 
tion at  the  ends.  It  will  appear  obvious,  that  the 
close  gearing  of  the  wheels  in  coaches,  produced  an 
action  at  the  ends  of  the  frame,  similar  to  that 
which  has  been  described  as  unfavorable  in  loco- 
motive engines.  The  coach  wheels  were  originally 
about  four  and  a  half  feet  apart  from  centres,  in  a 
longitudinal  direction.  This  distance  was  gradu- 
ally extended  until  it  reached  ten  feet,  in  four- 
wheeled  coaches;  and  finally,  the  third  pair  of 
wheels  was  introduced,  and  the  extreme  wheels 
spread  to  twelve  and  fourteen  feet.  This  plan  ma- 
terially reduced  the  motion  at  the  ends  of  the  coach ; 
but  it  is  subject  to  the  objection  of  increased  fric- 
tion on  the  rail,  and  cannot  be  as  safe  in  its  adhe- 
rence to  the  track,  on  the  curved  parts  of  the  rail. 
For  reasons  before  stated  in  regard  to  engines,  the 
end  motion  of  a  single  frame  must  be  greater  than 
when  the  main  frame  rests  on  the  centre  of  a  truck 
frame  ;  and  if  the  English  coach  had  no  auxiliary 
means  to  steady  its  motion,  it  would  be  a  much 
worse  riding  coach  than  the  American;  but  the 
English  have  adopted  a  very  good  plan  to  steady 


184  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

the  coach,  by  means  of  a  right  and  left  fcoupling- 
screw,  which  draws  the  coaches  to  a  close  bearing 
on  their  excellent  buffer  springs,  which  greatly  con- 
trols the  vibratory  motion  caused  by  the  inequalities 
of  the  rail. .  The  passenger  on  a  fast  train  very  soon 
discovers  whether  or  not  the  buffers  are  properly 
screwed  up  ;  in  fact,  the  motion  would  be  extremely 
unpleasant  if  the  coach  was  left  to  act  without  any 
means  of  this  sort  to  control  the  vibratory  motion. 
With  all  the  aid  of  this  device,  this  motion,  at 
points  where  the  rail  is  not  in  good  line,  or  when 
entering  on  a  curve,  is  very  sharp  and  unpleasant, 
even  on  their  best  lines  of  railway.  If  the  same 
excellence  was  given  to  the  springs  of  the  Ameri- 
can railway  coach  (both  bearing  and  buffer)  that  is 
given  to  the  English,  the  former  would  ride  much 
more  pleasantly  than  the  latter.  The  decided  supe- 
riority of  the  English  springs  go  far  to  make  up  for 
the  advantages  the  American  coach  derives  from 
its  truck  arrangement. 

The  English  railway  coach  with  six  wheels  has 
four  apartments  for  passengers,  with  six  seats  each 
for  first-class  coaches,  and  eight  seats  for  second- 
class  coaches,  or  respectively  24  and  32  passengers 
for  each  coach.  The  body  of  the  first-class  coach  is 
about  22  feet  long,  and  of  the  second  class  coach 
about  20  feet  long ;  or  the  latter  is  about  half  the 


COACHE8    AND   CARS.  185 

length  of  the  American  sixty-seated  coach.  It  does 
not  appear  from  the  experience  of  English  and 
American  railway  travelling  that  any  inci  eased 
eafety  is  secured  to  passengers  by  large  coaches. 

On  the  continent  of  Europe,  American  railway 
coaches  on  the  truck  principle  have  been  intro- 
duced to  a  limited  extent :  I  believe  they  are  mostly 
used  on  the  Russian  railways,  and  very  few  in  other 
parts  of  Europe.  In  this  country  they  have  super- 
seded (except  for  the  horse  railways  of  cities)  all 
others,  and  undoubtedly  possess  advantages  supe- 
rior to  any  other  now  in  use.  But  in  their  detail 
there  is  room  for  improvement.  The  truck  arrange- 
ment undoubtedly  adds  something  to  the  weight  of 
the  coach,  as  there  must  be  the  truck  frames,  which 
are  an  addition  to  the  main  frame ;  but  this  disad- 
vantage is  more  than  compensated  by  its  superior 
ease  of  motion  and  traction,  and  its  ease  to  the  rail 
and  machinery  ;  and  considering  the  facility  of  in- 
creasing the  number  of  wheels,  it  is  quite  practi- 
cable to  make  a  coach  for  a  given  number  of  passen- 
gers on  the  truck  plan,  with  less  weight  on  each 
wheel  than  on  the  old  plan ;  and  as  railway  science 
improves,  and  the  influence  of  the  weight  on  the 
wheel  comes  to  be  duly  considered,  the  truck  ar- 
rangement will  be  found  to  possess  great  advan- 
tages in  the  economy  of  railway  management. 


186  RAILWAY    PROPER'IT. 

'As  before  mentioned,  the  English  railway  coach 
spring  is  excellent ;  the  American  spring  is  far  in- 
ferior to  it.  The  latter  is  too  short  to  afford  the 
soft  motion  that  is  desirable  both  for  the  comfort 
of  the  passengers  and  the  durability  of  the  coach 
and  the  track.  This  has  arisen  in  part  from  the 
erroneous  short  gearing  of  the  truck,  not  allowing 
room  for  the  proper  length  of  spring.  The  short 
gearing  was  an  early  error,  growing  out  of  the  sup- 
posed necessity  of  running  most  favorably  on  curved 
rails,  which  is  gradually  giving  way  to  a  better 
rule.  With  a  truck  geared  with  its  wheels  five  and 
a  half  feet  from  centres,  the  spring  may  be  much 
improved,  and  the  truck  made  safe  and  steady. 

We  have  gone  largely  into  india  rubber  as  a 
material  for  railway  coach-springs  ;  a  material  bet- 
ter calculated  for  a  bouncing  motion  than  for  the 
legitimate  wants  of  a  coach-spring,  and  as  the  prac- 
tice is  now  getting  out  of  favor,  it  is  hoped  it  may 
be  soon  laid  aside,  and  steel,  the  best  article  now 
known,  be  wholly  substituted.  There  are  several 
points  in  which  a  soft,  easy  spring  is  important  in 
coaches  run  at  high  speed :  First,  it  is  more  easy 
and  agreeable  to  the  passenger;  secondly,  it  re- 
duces the  wear  and  tear  of  the  coach ;  and,  thirdly, 
it  saves  all  its  cost  in  the  wear  and  tear  of  track. 
The  weight  of  the  railway  coach  has  gone  up  from 


COACHES  AND   CARS.  187 

14,000  pounds  to  21,000  pounds,  and  this  great 
weight  at  high  speed  renders  it  highly  important  to 
secure  the  best  springs  that  can  reasonably  be 
made. 

As  before  stated,  the  American  railway  coach  is 
usually  designed  for  60  passengers — the  English 
taking  their  second-class  six-wheeled  coach  for  32 
passengers.  The  former  carry  seven  and  a  half 
passengers  on  a  wheel,  and  the  latter  five  and  a  half 
passengers  on  a  wheel.  Comparing  the  American 
with  the  first-class  English  coach,  the  former  carry 
seven  and  a  half  and  the  latter  four  passengers  on  a 
wheel.  The  American  has  cast  iron  wheels  and 
the  English  wrought  iron  wheels.  It  has  been  ob- 
served, that  the  American  coach,  owing  to  its  truck- 
frame,  has  greater  elements  of  weight  than  the 
English  coach;  but  the  latter  is  notwithstanding 
about  the  same  weight  per  seat  as  the  former ;  and 
being  shorter,  is  much  stronger  and  better  able  to 
resist  crushing  in  a  collision.  While  the  English 
coach  is  about  the  same  weight  per  passenger  as 
the  American,  the  wheel  of  the  first-class  English 
coach  carries  four  passengers,  and  the  wheel  of  the 
American  coach  carries  seven  a/nd  a  half  passen- 
gers, or  nearly  double  the  number  on  a  cast  iron 
wh.ee!  than  the  English  coach  carries  on  a  wrought 
iron  wheel  of  about  equal  weight.  Cast  iron  is  not 


188  RAILWAY  ^PROPERTY. 

used  in  English  coaches  in  any  part  requiring 
strength ;  even  the  jaws  on  the  frame  for  steadying 
the  bearing  springs  are  of  wrought  iron,  instead  of 
cast  iron,  as  in  ours.  Wrought  iron,  if  it  fail,  is  not 
like  3ast  iron,  liable  to  sudden  rupture,  but  usually 
gives  warning  sufficient  to  guard  against  actual 
failure,  and  is  therefore  a  much  safer  material.  As 
evidence  of  the  anxiety  in  this  respect  of  the  man- 
agers of  American  railways,  it  may  often  be  noticed 
at  stopping-places  that  men  pass  round  the  train 
with  hammers,  sounding  the  wheels  in  order  to  dis- 
cover if  they  have  received  on  the  journey  any 
checks  not  discoverable  by  the  eye ;  a  practice  that 
cannot  be  neglected  with  prudence.  Now,  a  mate- 
rial that  requires  so  much  watching  should  not  be 
used  for  high  speed  if  a  better  or  safer  can  be  had 
at  reasonable  cost — if  indeed  at  any  cost.  But  it  is 
doubtful  if  cast  iron  wheels  are  any  cheaper,  except 
in  first  cost ;  and  this  extra  first  cost,  it  is  believed, 
is  compensated  by  superior  durability ;  and  if  the 
damage  by  accidents  caused  by  the  breaking  of 
cast  iron  wheels  be  taken  into  account,  there  can  be 
no  doubt  the  wrought  iron  is  the  cheapest  wheel  in 
the  end,  and  far  more  satisfactory  as  to  safety. 

The  American  railway  coach  has  no  cross  parti 
tions,  and  generally  no  doors  in  the  sides ;  it  has  a 
passage  longitudinally  through  the  centre  through 


COACHES   AND   CARS.  189 

which  the  passengers  pass  to  the  seats  on  either 
side,  and  thus  requires  the  body  of  the  coach  to  be 
of  an  extra  width  equal  to  the  width  of  the  passage, 
which  is  an  element  of  weakness,  especially  as  it 
can  have  no  cross  support  between  the  ends,  except 
what  it  has  in  the  roof  and  floor.  There  being  no 
doors  in  the  sides,  adds  to  the  strength  in  this  part, 
and  goes  to  compensate  for  the  want  of  cross  parti- 
tions, and  if  the  coach  was  not  unreasonably  long 
and  wide,  would  balance  the  want  of  cross  support. 
The  English  coach  is  divided  by  cross  partitions, 
inclosing  two  rows  of  cross  seats  in  each  division  or 
apartment,  which  gives  good  facility  for  combining 
the  floor  and  roof,  but  has  the  weakening  effect  of 
side  doors,  and  if  the  body  was  very  long,  like  the 
American  coach,  this  would  be  a  serious  objection 
to  its  strength.  But  as  it  is  only  half  as  long  as  the 
American,  and  the  body  supported  at  three  points 
instead  of  two,  it  must  on  the  whole  be  regarded 
for  equal  material  a  stronger  coach,  and  less  liable 
to  break  up  by  collision.  It  cannot,  however,  be 
recommended  to  put  partitions  and  their  necessary 
appendages,  side  doors,  in  the  long  American  coach ; 
the  strength  of  this  coach  is  very  dependent  on  its 
sides,  and  if  the  long  beams  were  not  supported  by 
the  deep  side  plank  under  the  windows,  they  would 
require  to  be  very  heavy  and  well  trussed  with 


190  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

iron.  It  has  been  noticed  that  the  English  coach 
is  about  the  same  weight  per  passenger,  while  its 
plan  has  less  elements  of  weight  than  the  Ameri- 
can ;  and  that  the  former  carries  but  little  more 
than  half  the  weight  of  passenger  per  wheel  that  is 
carried  by  the  latter ;  that  the  former  use  wrought 
iron  as  a  material  where  the  latter  use  cast  iron. 
These  circumstances,  with  the  general  superiority 
of  their  track  and  police,  sufficiently  account  for  the 
greater  safety  of  English  railway  travelling. 

The  plan  of  the  American  railway  coach  is 
adapted  to  at  least  an  equal  degree  of  safety.  It 
has  the  objection  of  some  additional  weight  to  pro- 
vide for  its  truck  frame.  Its  motion  is  more  favor- 
able for  the  track,  the  coach  and  the  passenger ;  and 
by  its  eight  wheels  may  be,  for  a  given  number  of 
passengers,  lighter  on  the  rail  and  more  favorable 
for  its  durability ;  with  bearing  springs  equal  to 
those  of  the  English  coach,  it  would  have  superior 
ease  of  motion.  It  is,  however,  obvious  from  the 
general  practice  in  this  country,  that  these  advan- 
tages have  not  been  fully  secured.  There  has  been 
a  taste  for  a  large  railway  coach  early  inculcated 
and  very  generally  perpetuated  in  our  railway  his- 
tory. The  prevalent  idea  seems  to  have  been  that 
a  large  coach  gives  importance  to  a  railway,  and 
little  consideration  has  been  given  to  the  mechanical 


COACHES    AND    CARS.  191 

principles,  or  the  true  economy  involved  in  this 
question.  I  think  the  most  prominent  claim  of  late 
for  a  large  coach  is  that  it  is  more  safe ;  a  position 
I  regard  as  untenable.  As  before  observed,  the 
safety  of  a  railway  coach  depends  materially  on  its 
strength.  A  long  coach  body,  having  no  interior 
cross  supports,  is  necessarily  more  likely  to  crush  in 
a  collision  than  a  short  one  having  the  same  sized 
timbering.  A  coach  body  resting  on  its  two  ends 
is  subject  to  the  same  laws  of  strength  as  a  bridge ; 
and  it  is  fully  appreciated  that  a  bridge  of  long 
span,  or  length  between  supports,  requires  its  scant- 
ling to  be  stronger  in  proportion  to  a  short  one,  as 
the  squares  of  their  respective  lengths ;  and  hence 
a  coach  body  40  feet  long  between  supports  requires 
four  times  the  strength  to  sustain  the  same  weight 
that  would  be  required  for  one  of  20  feet  between 
supports;  and  in  this  case,  the  strength  must  be 
further  augmented  to  provide  for  a  double  weight, 
as  the  large  coach  is  m*de  double  length  for  the 
purpose  of  carrying  double  the  load.  The  influence 
of  momentum  has  been  noticed  ;  it  has  been  shown 
that  the  large  coaches  will  feel  its  influence  more 
severely  than  the  small  ones,  and  are  more  exposed 
to  be  broken  up  in  a  collision.  No  doubt,  there  is 
a  size  of  coach  that  is  most  convenient  for  use — a 
size  that  best  meets  all  the  wants  to  be  provided 


192  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

for.  In  this  must  be  considered  safety,  cost,  con- 
venience of  ingress  and  egress  for  passengers, 
facility  of  seats,  handling  at  stations,  and  the  trac- 
tion of  the  coach.  All  these  points  can  be  better 
secured  by  a  coach  of  40  seats  than  one  of  60 
seats.  I  am  well  aware  that  railway  men  in  this 
country  will  generally  dissent  from  this  view,  for  I 
have  often  discussed  the  question  with  many  of 
them,  and  know  the  tenacity  with  which  they  ad- 
here to  large  coaches,  though  I  have  yet  to  learn 
one  single  argument  worthy  of  consideration  that 
has  been  urged  in  their  favor.  The  folly  of  hauling 
a  house,  with  an  audience-room  capable  of  seating 
60  people,  through  the  country  at  the  rate  of  40 
to  50  miles  per  hour,  and  calling  it  a  vehicle  for 
travelling,  does  not  seem  to  have  entered  the  general 
mind  of  railway  managers. 

Cars  for  freight  have  had  a  similar  history  as  that 
described  for  coaches.  The  eight-wheeled,  or  truck 
principle,  was  adopted  in  this  country  for  cars  about 
the  same  time  as  for  coaches ;  and  has  much  the 
same  advantages  over  the  old  four-wheeled  railway 
wagon  previously  in  use.  The  English  adhere  to 
the  old  single  frame  arrangement,  and,  I  believe, 
generally  with  four  wheels  instead  of  six,  as  in  their 
more  modern  coaches.  They  have  spread  the 
wheels  longitudinally,  from  about  four  feet  apart  to 


OOACHE8    AND    CARS.  193 

six  and  eight  feet  apart.     If  it  be,  as  it  undoubtedly 
is,  an  advantage  to  reduce  the  weight  on  the  wheel, 
as  well  as  to  secure  other  advantages,  eight  wheels 
are  certainly  better  than  four;  and  in  regard  to 
freight,  not  requiring  high  speed,  it  is  difficult  to 
see  the  reason  that  prevents  English  engineers  from 
adopting  the  truck  plan.     As  in  coaches,  we  have 
generally  adopted  the  truck  principle  in  cars ;  but 
though  we  have,  as  I  think,  the  best  principle  of 
construction,  we  have  not  made  a  wise  improvement 
of  it ;  for,  instead  of  improving  the  opportunity  of 
lessening  the  weight  on  the  wheel,  we  have  in- 
creased the  load,  so  that  no  advantage  in  this  re- 
spect is  gained.     Our  cars  are  usually  designed  for 
ten  tons   of  freight ;  and  the  car  will  weigh  from 
seven  to  eight  tons.     On  a  few  coal  railways  they 
have  used  eight- wheeled  cars,  that  carry  a  load  of 
three  and  a  half  to  four  tons,  the  weight  of  empty 
cars  from  one  and  a  quarter  to  one  and  a  half  tons ; 
but  these  are  exceptions  to  the  general  practice, 
though  they  have  been  in   successful  use  twenty 
years,  and  have  resulted  from  superior  engineering 
and   management.      The   general   tone  of  opinion 
among  railway  managers  has  been  in  favor  of  large 
cars  as  well  as  coaches.     It  seems  to  have  been  the 
prevailing  idea,  that  the  car  should  be  as  large  as 
possible.    The  true  question  here  involved  is,  un- 

9 


194:  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

doubtedly,  the  car  that  will  afford  the  means  oi 
cheapest  transport.  If  the  car  furnish  suitable  ac- 
commodation to  the  freight  carried,  and  is  conve- 
nient for  management,  the  essential  requisites  are 
provided  for.  The  large  cars  are  necessarily  more 
severe  on  the  track— causing  greater  derangement 
and  wear  than  small  ones  ;  this  must  be  obvious  to 
the  least  consideration.  The  argument,  claiming 
greater  safety  in  large  cars,  is  not  tenable  for  coaches, 
and  much  less  so  for  cars,  not  having  even  a  plausi- 
ble basis  to  rest  on.  No  doubt  there  is  a  size  of 
ears  as  well  as  coaches,  best  fitted  for  the  service 
they  are  to  perform.  The  car  should  be  of  sufficient 
size  to  permit  convenient  stowage  of  the  freight 
generally  transported.  It  is  not  incumbent,  nor 
good  economy,  to  provide,  in  the  general  plan,  for 
those  occasional  pieces  of  freight  that  may  be  offered 
a  few  times  in  the  course  of  a  year ;  it  should  pro- 
vide for  the  articles  that  constitute  the  great  mass 
of  the  traffic.  On  the  English  railways,  where  there 
is  as  much  necessity  for  this  provision  as  here,  they 
conduct  all  their  traffic  on  cars  ranging  from  twelve 
to  fifteen  feet  long,  and  do  not  seem  to  feel  any  em- 
barrassment. They  transport  live  stock  of  every 
variety,  and  in  large  numbers ;  and  the  ease  and 
facility  of  handling  the  cars  at  their  stations,  greatly 
impressed  me  when  witnessing  their  operations. 


OO ACHES   ANL    OARS.  195 

If  it  be  said,  that  it  is  at  times  necessary  to  trans- 
port long  timber,  or  other  article  requiring  a  longer 
and  larger  car,  let  there  be  a  suitable  number 
adapted  to  this  object,  if  it  appear  a  branch  of 
traffic  that  will  warrant  the  expense.  It  would  cer- 
tainly be  bad  economy  to  incur  extra  expense  on 
one  hundred  cars,  that  any  one  of  them  may  be 
adapted  to  some  peculiar  form  of  freight  requiring 
only  the  capacity  of  one.  But  there  would  not 
generally  be  one  car-load  of  this  kind  of  exceptional 
freight  in  a  thousand,  that  would  not  be  sufficiently 
provided  for  in  cars  well  adapted  to  the  general 
traffic. 

Having  been  long  convinced  of  the  impolicy  of 
large  freight  cars,  some  years  since  I  proposed  to 
stock  a  new  railway  with  cars  eighteen  feet  long  for 
covered  and  twenty-one  feet  long  for  platforms ; 
and  contracts  were  made  accordingly,  and  continued 
until  about  two  hundred  cars  were  placed  upon  the 
railway.  The  cars  were  satisfactory  to  the  men 
who  managed  them — they  were  lighter  in  propor- 
tion to  their  useful  load — more  easily  moved  about 
the  station  by  hand  (of  which  more  or  less  is  always 
necessary),  requiring  less  than  half  the  force  to 
handle  them — no  inconvenience  was  experienced  in 
stowing  freight — less  labor  was  required  in  loading 
and  unloading  grain — they  carried  a  greater  per- 


196  KAILWAY   PROPERTY. 

centage  of  useful  load  in  the  train,  and  in  collisions 
were  less  injured  than  large  cars,  and  the  practical 
operation  was  satisfactory  in  every  respect.  But 
the  directors  of  the  company  thought  it  would  not 
do  to  have  small  cars,  when  other  railways  had 
large ;  alleging  that  it  would  give  their  railway  a 
diminutive  character,  and  injure  the  stock  in  the 
market ;  and,  contrary  to  my  advice,  made  contracts 
for  as  large  cars  as  were  in  use  on  other  railways. 
Against  this,  for  a  time,  I  remonstrated,  urging 
that  the  small  cars  were  working  very  satisfactorily, 
and  that  the  value  of  the  capital  stock  would  de- 
pend on  the  net  money  that  would  be  earned,  rather 
than  on  the  size  of  cars  used,  and  that  perseverance 
would  show  the  true  interest  of  the  proprietors  as 
affected  by  the  size  of  cars.  In  reply,  says  one  of 
the  directors,  "  What  do  we  care  for  the  value  of 
the  stock  twenty  years  hence  ?"  I  mention  this, 
merely  to  show  the  short-sighted  policy  that  often 
controls  railway  management. 

Little  as  the  subject  regarding  the  weight  of  ma- 
chinery has  been  considered,  there  is  no  one  that 
more  intimately  concerns  the  economy  of  railway 
management.  This  cannot  fail  to  impress  the  engi- 
neer who  carefully  examines  the  mechanical  prin- 
ciples involved,  and  the  result  of  railway  practice. 
No  superficial  attention  will  prove  a  corrective ;  it 


COACHES   AND   CABS.  197 

.must  be  thorough,  careful,  practical,  and  laborious, 
to  reach  a  beneficial  result.  The  wants  of  the  traffic 
must  be  well  studied  ;  as  they  are  to  be  provided  for, 
and  the  traffic  to  be  extended  to  new  items,  as  fast 
as  they  may  pay  remunerative  rates.  This  settled, 
and  the  important  question  follows,  what  sort  of 
machinery  will  afford  the  means  of  doing  it  in  the 
most  economical  manner  ? 

In  relation  to  coaches  and  cars,  the  question  does 
not  involve  any  difficulty  when  regarded  in  view 
of  well  known  principles,  and  their  proper  adapta- 
tion to  the  use  required.  A  coach  of  40  seats  is 
quite  as  convenient  for  making  up  a  train  as  one 
for  60  seats.  If  a  greater  number  are  required  for 
the  train,  they  are  as  easily  moved  if  in  train ;  and 
if  single,  they  may  be  moved  more  easily  in  cor- 
respondence to  their  capacity,  and  this  is  important 
so  far  as  the  movement  is  required  by  manual 
labor.  The  ingress  and  egress  of  passengers  is  in 
favor  of  the  small  coach ;  it  may  be  lighter  in  pro- 
portion to  the  load  carried,  and  it  will  often  be 
sufficient  for  the  fraction  of  a  train ;  in  which  case 
it  will  serve  all  the  purpose  of  a  larger  coach. 
Where,  then,  is  the  superiority  of  the  large  over  the 
small  coach  which  is  to  compensate  for  its  more  ex- 
pensive maintenance  ?  I  have  not  been  able  to  see 
it,  though  the  large  coach  is  adhered  to  with  all  the 


198  RAILWAY    PKOPERTT. 

tenacity  of  u  red  tape."  Some  excuse  it  on  account 
of  the  spring  or  elasticity  of  the  long  body,  and 
claim  that  it  rides  more  easily  for  the  passenger 
than  the  shorter  body.  This  is  an  admission  that 
it  is  weaker  than  the  short  one,  and,  of  courRe,  so 
far  less  safe,  as  it  could  have  no  more  spring  if  it 
was  equally  rigid.  "Now  the  body  of  a  coach  should 
be  made  so  as  to  give  it  the  requisite  strength ;  and 
the  springs  should  be  under  it,  not  in  it.  The  truth 
is,  the  spring  of  the  larger  body  arises  from  its 
weakness  between  supports,  and  the  greater  elasti- 
city is  not  an  object,  but  a  mechanical  necessity, 
arising  from  the  desire  to  avoid  the  weight  of  scant- 
ling, that  would  be  required  to  give  it  the  same  de- 
gree of  strength  that  appertains  to  the  more  rigid 
frame  of  the  short  coach ;  and  hence  the  resort  to 
iron  trussing  in  the  body  of  the  large  coach  to  im- 
prove its  stiffness,  not  its  elasticity. 

In  regard  to  cars,  there  is  nothing  gained,  even 
in  convenience,  in  carrying  from  two  to  two  and  a 
half  tons  on  a  wheel,  over  such  as  may  carry  one 
and  a  quarter  to  one  and  a  half  tons,  car  and  load 
included. 

The  real  difficulty  in  this  matter  is  the  habit,  that 
lias  become  very  general  on  railways,  of  using  large 
cars  and  coaches.  To  remove  this  is  no  easy  task, 
and  considerable  time  must  elapse  before  the  ill- 


COACHKS   AND   CARS.  199 

founded  prejudice  can  be  removed ;  and  the  engi- 
neer who  may  appreciate  this  subject  will  find  it 
necessary  to  proceed  cautiously  with  any  changes 
he  may  desire  to  make ;  and  to  keep  in  mind  that 
he  will  be  opposed  by  men  who  have  influence, 
although  they  do  not  comprehend  the  principles 
involved.     From  long  observation  and  much  reflec- 
tion, I  am  satisfied  of  the  substantial  truth  of  the 
position  I  have  taken,  and  that  sooner  or  later  it 
must  come  to  be  properly  considered.     Though  I 
look  appropriately  to  the  professional  efforts  of  civil 
engineers  for  improvement  in  this  department,  it 
must  not  be  expected  that  all  engineers  will  meet 
the  requirements   of  the  case.     I  have  seen  the 
regular  daily  operation  of  passenger  trains  on  an 
important  railway,  under  the  advice  of  an  engineer 
of  extra  profession  of  scientific  claims,  drawn  by  an 
engine  of  20  tons  weight,  with  two  coaches  nearly 
half  filled  with  passengers,  over  a  soft,  unballasted 
prairie  railway ;  the  bouncing  of  the  coach  such  as 
to  alarm  passengers  not  accustomed  to  this  kind 
of  travelling,  and  even  to  try  the  nerves  of  others. 
The  discomfort  of  this  sort  of  travelling  is  obvious, 
as  the   difficulty,  or   rather  impossibility,  in   wet 
weather,  of  keeping  the  track   in  order,  and  the 
damage  to  the  machinery,  must  correspond  to  its 
weight  and  the  roughness  of  the  track,  and  the  net 


.200  EAILWAY    PKOPERTY. 

profits  of  this  kind  of  management,  if  anything, 
must  be  very  small.  An  engine  of  less  than  half 
the  weight,  and  coaches  of  scarcely  more  than  half 
the  weight,  would  have  performed  the  service  per- 
fectly, and  so  reduced  the  weight  on  the  rail,  that 
the  expense  of  adjustment  would  be  comparatively 
small,  and  the  whole  machinery  kept  in  order  at 
less  than  half  the  expense. 

I  have  seen  the  operations  of  a  railway  that  had 
no  heavy  business,  either  in  freight  or  passengers, 
and  the  daily  passenger  train  rarely  containing 
more  than  one  coach,  and  this  drawn  by  a  20  ton 
engine.  The  little  Saratoga  engine,  before  de- 
scribed, weighing  less  than  seven  tons,  would  have 
taken  in  suitable  coaches  double  the  number  of 
passengers,  at  the  rate  of  25  miles  per  hour,  at  half 
the  expense  incurred  by  this  inconsiderate  practice ; 
and  yet  no  one  engaged  in  the  management  in 
either  of  the  cases  above  mentioned  seemed  to  sus- 
pect any  want  of  sound  economy.  The  practice 
arises,  not  from  any  inherent  difficulty,  but  from 
the  absence  of  careful  thought,  and  from  a  ready 
yielding  to  careless  and  ill-advised  habits. 

On  single  track  railways,  there  is  an  advantage 
on  account  of  the  inconvenience  that  may  arise  in 
a  heavy  traffic  of  too  great  a  number  of  trains  in 
having  as  much  power  in  the  engines  as  is  compati- 


COACHES    AND    CARS.  201 

ble  with  a  due  regard  to  economy  in  other  respects ; 
and  this  will  often  lead  to  pressing  the  weight  of 
engines  beyond  the  best  limit,  and  must  be  ad- 
mitted to  be  some  excuse  for  the  practice.  Bui 
this  does  not  apply  to  the  coaches  and  cars  gene- 
rally, for  whatever  be  the  amount  of  traffic  suppos- 
able  on  a  railway,  the  most  favorable  size  of  the 
coach  will  be  essentially  as  good  for  a  large  as  for  a 
small  traffic;  and  freight  may  be  transported  to 
any  amount  on  a  six-ton,  eight-wheeled  car,  cheaper 
than  it  can  on  a  larger  one. 

It  is  claimed  by  some  that  large  cars  are  best 
for  transporting  live  stock.  Why  are  they  better  ? 
Will  the  stock  be  more  safe  ?  The  safest  plan  would 
be  to  have  but  one  animal  in  a  place ;  then  there 
would  be  no  other  to  injure  it;  and  injury  from 
each  other  is  admitted  to  be  the  main  source  of 
damage,  consequently  the  greater  number  together, 
the  greater  the  risk.  The  English  carry  a  large 
amount  of  every  description  of  live  stock  in  their  14 
feet  cars,  and  have  not  learned  their  inconvenience. 
I  have  not  yet  learned  a  valid  reason  for  the  im- 
agined superiority  of  large  over  small  cars  for  live 
stock,  unless  it  be  that  when  a  car  is  once  placed 
for  receiving  them,  it  would  be  more  convenient  to 
drive  a  whole  train-load  on,  and  save  the  trouble 
of  changing  cars  in  the  process. 

9* 


202  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

The  constructing  engineer  should  carefully  con- 
sider the  traffic  he  is  to  provide  for,  and  aim,  so 
far  as  he  may  have  the  power,  at  securing  such 
machinery  as  will  effect  the  most  economical  trans- 
port; and  in  this,  I  am  well  aware,  he  will  find 
much  prejudice.  It  is  nevertheless  highly  impor- 
tant, and  by  degrees,  the  necessity  of  more  strict 
economy  will  compel  attention  to  this  branch  of 
railway  management.  On  railways  of  large  traffic, 
at  good  rates,  the  necessity  will  more  slowly  deve- 
lop itself,  but  on  those  of  light  traffic,  this  atten- 
tion to  a  more  thorough  scrutiny  into  expenses  can- 
not long  be  delayed,  and  engineers  should  give  this 
branch  of  supervision  their  most  careful  and  dili- 
gent attention ;  bearing  in  mind,  that  it  is  not  the 
largest  machinery  that  should  be  run  on  a  ranway, 
but  that  which  will  afford  the  best  net  profit  on  the 
traffic  they  conduct. 


OPEBATING   DEPARTMENT — INTRODUCTORY.        203 


CHAPTER  XY. 

OPERATING   DEPARTMENT — INTRODUCTORY. 

THE  term  operating  has  come  to  be  understood  as 
expressing  the  business  of  maintaining  the  railway 
and  machinery  and  conducting  the  traffic. 

In  the  general  practice  there  is  placed  at  the  head 
of  this  department  a  superintendent,  with  subordi- 
nate agents  to  attend  to  the  various  branches  of 
business.  The  subordinates  are  more  or  less  varied, 
according  to  the  magnitude  of  the  traffic  conducted. 
On  prominent  railways  there  are  often  assistant 
euperintendents,  who,  under  the  general  instructions 
of  the  superintendent,  exercise  his  authority  in  his 
absence.  On  some  railways  a  civil  engineer  is  em- 
ployed ;  but  his  branch  of  duty  has  not  been,  so  far 
as  I  know,  a  very  important  one,  in  the  operating 
department.  There  is  a  freight  department,  and  a 
passenger  department ;  an  auditor  and  a  cashier ; 
or  in  some  form  their  equivalents. 

The  superintendent  directs  in  regard  to  all  repairs 
of  track  and  machinery,  and  for  this  purpose  em- 
p^oys  track-masters,  and  a  master  machinist ;  also 


204  HALLWAY    PROPERTY. 

constructs  time-tables  for  the  running  of  trains,  em- 
ploys conductors  for  running  them,  station  agents, 
clerks,  wood  and  water  men,  watchmen  and  switch- 
men. The  auditor  and  cashier  are  not  properly 
under  the  supervision  of  the  superintendent,  but 
receive  their  appointment  from  the  board  of  Direc- 
tors, and  are  responsible  directly  to  the  President 
or  Treasurer. 

The  first  business  of  operating  a  railway  is  to 
organize  the  conducting  of  the  traffic,  which  must 
be  immediately  followed  by  the  organization  of  a 
system  for  repairs  and  maintenance. 

At  the  head  of  the  freight  department  there  is 
sometimes  placed  a  general  freight  agent,  but  in 
others  a  chief  clerk  has  the  charge  of  the  account- 
ing duties  under  the  direction  of  the  auditor.  If 
the  former,  it  is  usual  for  the  general  freight  agent, 
under  the  direction  of  the  superintendent,  not  only 
to  attend  to  and  supervise  the  freight  traffic,  but  to 
make  contracts  for  freight  and  perform  other  outside 
duties  in  this  branch ;  in  the  latter  case,  these  duties 
are  more  or  less  committed  to  the  local  agents  at  the 
stations,  under  the  general  direction  of  the  super- 
intendent. 

The  head  of  the  passenger  department  is  styled 
the  general  passenger  agent.  He  keeps  the  accounts 
with  all  persons  authorized  to  sell  tickets,  and 


OPERATING    UiCl'ARTMENT INTRODUCTORY.        205 

receives  the  reports  of  the  passenger  conductors, 
also  keeps  the  accounts  with  connecting  railways 
in  the  sale  of  through  tickets,  which  has  become 
an  extensive  practice,  and  involves  corresponding 
accounts. 


206  RAILWAY   PROPERTY. 


CHAPTEK   XVI. 

OPERATING  —  FREIGHT. 

ON  important  railways,  the  freight  department 
requires  thorough  system  in  the  accounts.  If  strict 
attention  is  not  given,  so  as  to  present  full  and  ex- 
plicit statements  of  the  numerous  parcels  of  goods 
received,  forwarded,  and  delivered,  confusion  and 
loss  will  occur.  The  accounting  duty  of  the  freight 
department  is  by  far  the  largest  in  railway  opera- 
tions, and  demands  the  most  careful  and  strict 
attention.  In  the  early  history  of  this  business 
there  was  much  confusion.  Persons  who  had  been 
employed  in  the  ordinary  methods  of  transporta- 
tion by  vessels  and  common  roads,  were  often  found 
quite  inadequate  to  the  rapid  transaction  required 
on  a  railway.  One  of  the  difficulties  arose  from 
the  effort  to  make  complete  bills  for  lots  that  were 
distributed  in  several  cars  of  the  train.  This  has 
for  some  time  been  abandoned,  and  bills  are  made 
for  each  car,  without  reference  to  the  particular  lots 
to  which  they  belong,  at  the  same  time  aiming  to 


OPERATING FREIGHT.  207 

keep  lots  together  so  far  as  may  be.  The  goods  for 
any  particular  station  are  usually  placed  by  them- 
selves in  one  or  more  cars,  and  such  car  or  cars  are 
left  with  their  bills  of  lading  at  their  destined  sta- 
tion, to  be  unloaded  and  delivered  by  the  station 
agent,  who  is  held  responsible  for  the  charge  and 
the  proper  delivery  of  the  goods.  If  small  lots  of 
goods  are  to  be  sent  to  several  stations,  they  are 
.sent  by  a  distributing  car,  and  delivered  to  the 
respective  stations  from  the  train,  which  must  stop 
a  sufficient  time  to  unload  them  at  the  stations. 
From  the  office  of  shipment  a  copy  of  the  bill  of 
lading  is  sent  to  the  auditor,  who  charges  the  agent 
at  the  office  of  destination  with  the  same.  By  this 
means  the  auditor's  books  show  the  accounts  of  the 
station  agents,  who  are  required  to  make  daily 
reports  to  him  of  their  cash  receipts,  and  transmit 
the  funds  they  collect  to  the  cashier,  or  other  fiscal 
officer.  This  makes  the  check  complete  ;  the  audi- 
tor's accounts  showing  how  much  should  be  paid  in 
by  the  agent,  and  the  amount  received  by  the 
cashier,  and  he  is  at  all  times  able  to  show  the 
Treasurer  of  the  Company,  or  the  board  of  Direc- 
tors, the  amount  of  funds  that  may  be  transmitted 
or  paid  over. 

The  station  or  other  receiving  agent  may  not  col- 
lect the  charges  immediately,  in  which  case  his 


208  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

reports  state  the  amount  of  goodg  on  hand,  and  the 
charges  due  on  the  same.  Occasionally,  there  will 
be  lots  of  goods  remaining  for  considerable  time 
before  called  for  by  the  consignee;  and  so  far 
as  not  called  for,  the  agent  cannot  collect  the 
charges,  and  must  report  "  goods  on  hand."  If  the 
agent  improperly  choose  to  keep  the  funds  he  has 
collected,  he  may  do  so  by  false  returns  as  to  goods 
on  hand ;  and  if  suspicion  of  this  arise,  the  auditor 
should  send  an  agent  to  examine  the  goods  on  hand, 
and  if  he  find  the  goods  have  been  delivered  he 
will  know  the  agent  has  made  false  reports,  and  the 
correction  may  be  promptly  applied.  With  proper 
diligence  on  the  part  of  the  auditor  no  great  loss 
can  occur. 

The  conductor  of  a  train  has  what  is  called  a 
train  list  of  the  cars  in  his  train,  setting  forth  the 
number  that  are  to  be  left  at  the  several  stations, 
and  as  he  leaves  the  cars,  takes  a  receipt  for  the 
same  from  the  station  agent,  which  is  his  voucher 
for  their  proper  disposition ;  and  if  from  any  acci- 
dent he  is  compelled  to  leave  a  car  before  it  reaches 
its  destination,  he  reports  it  at  once  to  the  office  of 
the  station  where  it  was  loaded  and  billed,  and  also 
to  the  general  office,  where  means  are  taken  to  send 
it  forward  to  its  destination.  In  addition  to  the 
train  list,  the  conductor  usually  carries  the  bills  of 


OPERATING FREIGHT.  209 

the  goods  in  his  train,  that  are  made  to  the  station 
to  which  they  are  due,  and  these  with  the  cars  he 
delivers  to  the  station  agent.  In  some  instances, 
the  bills  are  sent  forward  by  a  passenger  train,  and 
received  by  the  agent  before  the  goods  arrive  :  in 
some  instances  it  has  been  the  practice  to  send  for- 
ward the  train  before  the  bills  were  made  out ;  in 
such  case  the  bills  follow,  and  may  not  arrive  until 
after  the  goods  reach  their  destination.  It  is  a  bad 
practice  and  leads  to  embarrassment  in  the  delivery 
of  goods,  and  should  not  be  tolerated. 

The  freight  business  is  now  so  well  organized, 
that  losses  seldom  occur  from  stray  goods,  and  the 
mode  of  checking  appears  to  be  complete. 


210  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 


CHAPTEE  XYII. 

OPERATING — PASSENGER  8. 

IN  the  passenger  department,  the  accounts  are 
kept  by  the  general  passenger  agent,  who  supplies 
from  his  office  tickets  to  all  persons  authorized  to 
sell  them,  and  the  checks  in  this  department,  so  far 
as  relates  to  ticket  agents,  are  complete.  Deception 
can  hardly  be  practised  except  by  collusion  with  a 
third  party. 

The  conductors  of  the  passenger  train  report  t'» 
the  general  passenger  agent,  and  there  has  not  been 
found  any  means  of  checking  him  for  the  collec- 
tions he  makes  in  the  coaches,  except  so  far  as  it 
has  and  may  be  done  by  espionage.  In  conse- 
quence of  this  difficulty  most  raihvay  companies 
offer  inducements  to  passengers  to  procure  tickets 
at  the  offices  by  allowing  a  discount  of  5  to 
10  cents  on  a  ticket.  This  induces  a  largely  in- 
creased purchase  of  the  ticket  agents ;  but  there  is 
a  considerable  amount  still  collected  in  the  coaches 
by  the  conductor,  which  is  consequently  dependent 
on  the  integrity  of  his  return.  I  know  of  no  means 


OPERATING PASSENGERS.  211 

to  wholly  remove  the  difficulty  arising  from  this 
want  of  a  check  on  the  conductors. 

On  English  railways  most  of  the  stations  are  in- 
closed, and  the  passengers  on  leaving  and  usually 
on  entering  the  station,  must  in  the  former  case 
give  up,  and  in  the  latter  show  their  ticket ;  but 
there  is  nothing  to  prevent  the  ticket  collector  from 
taking  the  fare,  and  if  the  passenger  has  no  ticket, 
the  integrity  of  the  collector  must  be  relied  on,  to 
account  for  the  money.  In  large  towns  a  different 
course  is  pursued  :  about  one  mile  from  the  station, 
a  ticket  collector  gets  on  the  train  and  collects  the 
tickets,  the  train  being  delayed  time  enough  for  this 
purpose.  Here  the  collector  occasionally  finds  a 
passenger  without  a  ticket,  and  I  have  seen  a  col- 
lector in  such  a  case  collect  the  fare  for  the  distance 
given  by  the  passenger,  without  remark,  and  have 
concluded  it  not  to  be  a  rare  occurrence.  Of  course 
the  return  of  such  a  collector  can  have  no  more 
check  than  that  of  a  conductor.  The  English  are 
very  watchful  of  the  entry  of  passengers  into  the 
coaches;  but  in  the  large  towns  I  have  seen  no 
great  difficulty  in  a  passenger  getting  into  the 
coach  of  a  making-up  train  ;  the  passage  from  the 
ticket-office  to  the  coach  shed  being  open  and  often 
without  a  doorkeeper,  affording  no  impediment  to 
his  entering  the  coach,  and  if  asked  when  in  the 


212  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

coacli  if  he  had  a  ticket,  was  seldom  required 
to  show  it,  the  man  engaged  in  seating  the  passen- 
gers usually  being  content  with  the  word  of  the 
passenger.  I  have  known  instances  in  which  pas- 
sengers had  no  tickets,  but  paid  fare  to  the  collector 
at  the  large  town  station.  Though  the  English 
system  does  not  appear  to  be  complete,  I  think  ~a 
much  greater  proportion  of  fare  is  paid  at  the  offices 
than  on  our  railways.  If  the  English  system  re- 
quired, in  the  case  of  a  passenger  not  having  a 
ticket,  that  he  should  go  to  the  ticket-office  and  ob- 
tain one  before  he  could  pass  the  gate  either  out  or 
in,  and  not  allow  either  gatekeeper  or  collector  to 
take  fare  in  any  case,  it  would  seem  to  render  the 
check  complete.  This  would'  require  the  same 
practice  at  the  terminal  and  other  large  stations,  as 
at  the  smaller  ones.  I  have  supposed  the  practice 
of  sending  a  collector  before  entering  the  large 
towns,  was  introduced  to  avoid  delay  to  the  passen- 
gers, who  take  carriages  in  the  station-yard ;  and 
so  long  as  it  prevails,  the  system  of  checks  must  be 
imperfect.  If  the  English  system  was  carried  out 
as  above  suggested,  it  would  not  allow  a  fare  paid, 
except  to  a  ticket  agent,  and  the  collector  would  be 
merely  a  collector  of  tickets.  Some  effort  has  been 
made  in  this  country  to  pass  the  entering  passen- 
gers through  a  gate  or  door,  and  there  requiring 


OPERATING PASSENGERS.  213 

them  to  show  their  tickets  before  they  pass  Into  the 
station,  and  I  have  often  gone  on  a  train  directly 
from  such  a  station,  and  seen  the  conductor  quite 
busy  in  receiving  fare  from  those  who  had  no 
tickets.  The  fact  is,  it  often  happens  that  a  crowd 
is  collected  around  the  doorkeeper,  and  passengers 
have  some  delay  in  finding  their  tickets,  and  with 
sundry  items  of  hand  baggage,  and  sometimes 
(often)  infants,  and  children  but  little  more  ad- 
vanced, causes  delay  and  impatience,  offering  in- 
ducement and  opportunity  for  others  to  crowd  the 
passage,  and  more  or  less  pass  without  showing, 
and  without  even  having  tickets  to  show. 

I  see  no  effective  mode  of  forming  a  check  on  the 
passenger  receipts,  without  complete  inclosures,  so 
arranged  that  no  person  can  go  into  the  car-shed  or 
yard  of  the  station  ground,  without  passing  a  door 
or  gate  arranged  with  one  or  more  openings,  and  a 
tender  at  each,  so  that  no  greater  number  need  pass 
any  tender  than  he  could  examine  and  see  that 
they  had  tickets;  for  most  stations  one  passage 
would  be  sufficient;  and  the  arrangement  would 
require  to  be  extended  to  all  stations  where  passen- 
gers were  received.  There  would  still  be  one  source 
of  evasion ;  namely,  a  passenger  may  procure  a 
ticket  for  the  next  station,  and  continue  on  to  a 
more  distant  station.  The  conductor  would,  of 


RAILWAY   PEOPERTY. 

course,  detect  him ;  but  how  is  the  fare  to  be  col- 
lected beyond  the  station  ticketed  ?  If  the  con- 
ductor collect,  as  is  the  present  custom,  then  the 
check  on  this  fare  is  lost.  To  carry  out  the  system, 
the  passenger  should  be  treated  as  one  that  refused 
to  pay  his  fare,  when  ae  extended  his  passage  be- 
yond the  station  ticketed,  and  put  off  the  train,  un- 
less he  could  satisfactorily  explain  to  the  conductor 
the  fact  of  not  possessing  a  ticket,  and  would  agree  to 
procure  a  ticket  at  the  next  station.  But  who  is  to 
control  the  conductor  in  such  a  case,  if  he  choose  to 
take  the  fare,  and  allow  the  passenger  to  proceed 
on  the  train  ?  As  the  conductor  is  the  only  man  of 
authority  on  the  train,  from  the  beginning  to  the 
end  of  his  route,  no  direct  check  can  be  had  on  his 
proceedings  with  a  passenger  on  the  way,  although 
there  would  be  an  indirect  check  in  the  fact  becom- 
ing generally  known  that  the  conductor  was  not  in 
any  case  allowed  to  receive  fare.  The  fact  of  receiv- 
ing it  would  thus  be  likely  to  attract  the  notice  of 
passengers,  and  hazard  a  report  that  would  bring 
the  conductor  to  an  account.  This  might  not,  in  all 
cases,  be  a  protection,  but  it  would  be  a  salutary 
check. 

If,  upon  any  plan,  the  exit  gate  be  used  as  in 
England,  to  insure  the  full  collection  of  fare,  the 
tender  should  not  be  allowed  to  take  fare  from  any 


OPERATING PASSENGERS.  215 

lelmquent  passenger ;  his  business  should  be  con- 
fined to  the  collection  of  checks  or  tickets,  and  if 
that  is  wanting,  the  passenger  should  be  required 
to  procure  it  at  the  ticket-office.  The  exit  gate  is 
objectionable  at  large  stations,  and  hence  the  Eng- 
lish railways  only  adopt  it  at  the  secondary  stations, 
and  depend  on  a  collector  at  the  large  stations,  as 
before  explained ;  and  on  the  collector  there  is  no 
check,  any  more  than  on  a  conductor. 

It  must  be  conceded  that  the  crowd  and  hurry 
that  occur  at  important  stations,  in  making  up 
trains,  and  more  especially  at  the  breaking  up  of 
the  train  at  terminal  stations,  involve  a  difficulty 
in  any  system  that  can  be  relied  on  as  a  perfect 
check.  The  entrance  gate  is  the  most  easily 
guarded,  and  if  this  part  were  well  arranged,  there 
would  be  but  a  small  exposure  to  loss.  It  involves 
the  necessity  of  receiving  the  baggage  at  or  near 
the  ticket-office,  in  order  to  save  the  passengers 
from  delay  and  confusion,  in  attending  to  both 
ticket  and  baggage  checks.  It  is  often  the  practice 
to  allow  friends  to  pass  the  gate  with  passengers, 
with  a  view  to  see  them  seated  in  the  coaches ;  this 
is  obviously  an  error,  and  should  not  be  allowed  on 
account  of  its  liability  to  abuse.  With  proper 
arrangement  of  in  closure  and  gates,  very  nearly  all 
the  fare  will  be  collected  at  the  ticket-offices ;  and 


216  KA1JLWAY    PROPERTY. 

if  the  conductor  and  all  collectors  of  tickets  were 
prohibited,  in  all  cases,  from  taking  fare,  making  it 
the  duty  of  the  former  to  require  any  delinquent 
passenger  to  go  to  the  office  of  the  next  station  and 
procure  his  ticket ;  or  failing  to  satisfy  him  that  he 
had  a  fair  excuse  for  his  delinquency,  to  put  him 
off  the  train,  as  is  now  done  if  payment  is  refused, 
would  leave  but  a  small  deficiency  in  checking  the 
passenger  receipts.  No  system  can  be  safe  from 
collusion ;  but  this  is  a  far  more  difficult  practice 
under  a  plan  like  this  proposed,  and  with  proper 
care  in  the  selection  of  agents,  no  great  or  material 
delinquency  will  be  likely  to  occur. 

In  all  business  involving  trusts,  the  importance 
of  a  system  of  complete  checks  in  reports  and 
accounts  is  very  obvious ;  to  both  parties  it  is  bene- 
ficial, securing  to  the  principal  full  accounts  of  his 
dues,  and  to  the  honest  agent  the  means  of  showing 
the  fidelity  of  his  proceedings.  By  the  existing 
practice  the  faithful  conductor  has  no  power  to 
prove  his  fidelity,  nor  the  railway  managers  any 
exact  means  to  prove  the  truth  of  any  suspicions 
they  may  entertain,  except  by  espionage,  which  is 
not  desirable  if  it  can  be  avoided — a  state  of  things 
Dften  very  embarrassing  to  both  parties;  and  action, 
when  taken,  is  usually  based  on  conjecture,  and  in 
many  cases  no  certainty  can  be  arrived  at.  The 


OPERATING PASSENGERS.  217 

reports  of  conductors  may  appear  fair,  but  as  there 
can  be  no  proper  check  to  verify  their  accuracy, 
they  afford  no  conclusive  evidence  in  the  case  either 
way,  and  the  unfaithfulness  that  may  be  supposed 
to  exist,  generally  rests  on  suspicion,  arising  from 
general  indications,  as  habits  of  dissipation  and  ex- 
penditure, or  the  reputation  of  acquiring  property 
faster  than  is  compatible  with  the  salary  received  ; 
and  these  facts  may  or  may  not  be  known,  accord- 
ing to  the  prudence  of  the  agent  in  keeping  them 
out  of  the  sight  of  those  who  are  interested  to  know 
them.  It  must  be  the  desire  of  all  honest  con- 
ductors, that  their  business  should  be  placed  on  a 
system  of  the  most  perfect  checks  ;  and  the  railway 
company,  in  order  to  protect  themselves  against 
such  as  may  be  unfaithful,  and  be  able  to  know 
those  that  are  trusty,  should  adopt  the  most  efficient 
system  practicable,  for  securing  the  fidelity  of  their 
passenger,  as  well  as  their  freight  receipts.  There 
is,  no  doubt,  a  difficulty  in  attaining  this  end,  and 
it  will  involve  considerable,  though  not  serious,  ex- 
pense to  prepare  the  stations  properly,  so  as  to  meet 
the  requirements  of  any  efficient  system.  With 
faithful  men  for  conductors,  no  great  evil  will  arise 
from  a  partial  collection  in  the  coaches ;  but,  as 
before  observed,  it  is  a  difficult,  if  not  an  impracti- 
cable tiling,  to  discriminate  between  those  that  are, 

10 


5218  KAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

and  those  that  are  not  faithful ;  and  therefore  the 
temptation,  as  much  as  possible,  should  be  removed. 
In  addition  to  the  fidelity  of  his  fiscal  duties,  the 
conductor  has  important  duties  in  the  management 
of  his  train.  His  good  manners  and  attention  to 
the  incidental  wants  of  passengers  will  have  much 
to  do  in  promoting  their  comfort  and  convenience, 
especially  with  the  infirm,  and  with  females  who 
may  be  without  an  escort.  He  should  be  a  man 
of  good  sense  and  ready  sagacity,  in  discovering 
how  he  may  be  useful  in  these  respects,  as  upon  his 
judgment  and  promptness  the  reputation  of  the 
railway  with  the  travelling  public  will  a  good  deal 
depend.  Upon  him  rests  mainly  the  responsibility 
of  a  proper  regulation  of  the  stops  of  the  train ;  to 
see  that  due  notice  is  given  to  the  passengers  that 
they  may  be  ready  when  the  train  stops  to  leave 
with  the  least  delay,  and  that  passengers  to  be  re- 
ceived are  promptly  got  on,  so  that  there  be  no 
unnecessary  delay  of  the  train  ;  for  what  is  lost  here 
must  be  made  up  by  increased  speed  between  sta- 
tions, which  it  is  important  to  avoid.  The  system 
of  marking,  registering,  and  checking  baggage  is 
now  so  well  arranged  tliat  the  baggage-man  may 
have  the  whole  assorted,  and  that  for  the  next  sta- 
tion ready  to  be  delivered  the  moment  the  train 
stops;  and  as  that  to  be  received  is  prepared  by  the 


OPERATING PASSENGERS.  219 

% 

station  agent,  ready  to  be  handed  in  as  soon  as  tlie 
baggage-man  on  the  train  has  discharged  that  to 
be  left,  very  little  time  is  necessary  for  baggage, 
and  usually  it  can  be  discharged  and  received  on 
board  by  the  time  the  passengers  are  changed.  If 
the  train  is  not  delayed  to  take  on  fuel  and  water, 
the  stop  need  not  consume  over  a  half  to  one  minute, 
according  to  the  traffic  of  the  station.  This  may 
seem  a  small  matter,  but  the  character  of  the  man- 
agement of  a  railway  may  be  determined  by  the 
manner  their  stops  are  conducted.  The  baggage- 
man and  brakemen  are  under  the  supervision  of 
the  conductor ;  and  much  depends  on  the  prompt- 
ness and  judgment  of  the  latter  in  stopping  the 
train;  at  all  times  they  should  be  quick  on  the -sig- 
nal, and  exercise  discretion  in  stopping  the  train  as 
soon  as  possible,  at  the  same  time,  not  to  cause  the 
wheels  to  slide,  except  in  cases  of  danger  to  the 
train.  The  engine  driver  is  also  under  the  super- 
vision of  the  conductor  to  a  certain  extent,  to  see 
that  his  duty  is  performed  skillfully  in  stopping  and 
starting  his  engine — in  maintaining  uniformity  of 
speed — in  entering  or  leaving  curve  lines,  so  as  to 
avoid  disagreeable  lateral  motion  to  the  train. 
These  things  are  not  only  important  to  the  easy 
motion  of  the  train,  but  to  the  saving  of  repairs  in 
machinery  and  track,  which  are  unnecessarily  in- 


220  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

jured  by  the  jerking  motion  and  irregular  speed 
caused  by  an  unskillful  running  of  engines.  The 
conductor  is  the  captain  of  the  train,  and  if  any 
of  the  men  employed  on  it  fail  to  obey  his  direc 
tions,  or  transgress  the  regulations  of  the  managers, 
it  is  his  duty  to  report  the  delinquent  to  the  super- 
intendent. 

From  the  preceding  remarks,  it  is  obvious  that 
the  conductor  should  be  a  man  combining  fidelity 
with  courteous  manners,  general  intelligence,  and 
sound  practical  sense ;  careful  to  avoid  danger,  and 
skillful  to  extricate  his  train  in  case  of  difficulty ; 
ne  must  be  unknown  at  saloons  of  dissipation — an 
indulgence  which  would  inevitably  impair  his  cha- 
racter for  fidelity  to  his  trust,  and  should  be  care- 
fully avoided. 


OPERATING ENGINE   DRIVERS.  221 


CHAPTEE  XVHL 

OPERATING ENGINE  DRIVERS. 

COMPETENT  engine  drivers  are  indispensable  to 
good  railway  management.  A  man  may  be  a  good 
mechanic,  and  understand  the  machinery  of  the 
engine  well,  and  still  be  a  poor  driver.  It  is  neces- 
sary that  he  have  good  judgment  as  to  time  and 
speed:  this  is  less  important  in  running  very 
high  than  in  running  low  speed,  as  the  former 
usually  requires  the  full  power  of  the  engine  ;  but 
at  a  lower  rate  of  speed,  he  will  be  in  danger  of 
arriving  too  early  or  too  late  at  the  stations,  or  will 
run  too  rapid  a  part  of  the  time,  and  too  slow  at 
others ;  and  as  it  is  the  interest  of  the  railway  to 
run  the  lowest  speed  that  will  answer  the  demands 
of  the  traffic,  all  unnecessary  high  running  is  a 
damage  to  the  proprietors ;  and  it  is  therefore  an 
object  to  obtain  the  greatest  regularity  in  speed. 
"With  a  skillful  driver,  jerks  are  rarely  felt  in  start- 
ing— no  running  past  the  station  where  a  stop  is  to 
be  made,  nor  more  breaking  up  than  is  necessary, 
especially  such  as  to  slide  the  wheels,  which  is  very 


222  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

severe  on  both  wheels  and  rails ;  coaches  and  car& 
are  injured  by  sudden  starting  and  stopping,  and 
great  care  should  be  exercised  to  guard  against  these 
evils  as  much  as  possible.  In  passing  to  and  from 
curves  in  the  line  of  track,  the  skill  of  the  engine 
driver  is  to  be  exercised,  and  will  demonstrate  how 
well  he  understands  the  handling  of  his  engine :  if 
well  done,  the  motion  will  hardly  *be  noticed,  and 
if  ill  done,  a  disagreeable  lateral  motion  will  result, 
as  may  often  be  noticed.  This  is  a  test  that  few 
drivers  can  stand  well.  It  requires  a  good  eye  on 
approaching  or  leaving  a  curve,  and  power  and 
judgment  in  handling  the  engine.  I  never  notice 
this  duty  well  performed  without  a  desire  to  express 
my  satisfaction  to  the  driver,  as  I  regard  it  as  a 
high  exhibition  of  skill  in  this  department. 

On  express  passenger  trains  the  work  of  the 
engine  driver  is  of  short  duration,  and  not  over  one 
or  two  operations  of  taking  on  fuel  and  water  will 
occur  on  his  route.  But  on  way-passenger  and 
freight  trains,  stops  are  more  numerous,  and  much 
more  time  is  taken  to  perform  the  route.  It  is  of 
great  importance  that  the  business  at  these  stops  be 
dispatched  in  the  least  time  practicable ;  for,  as 
before  observed,  whatever  is  lost  in  time  here,  must 
be  regained  by  so  much  increase  of  speed.  In  this 
matter  much  will  depend  on  the  conductor,  but  the 


OPERATING ENGINE    DRIVERS.  223 

usefulness  and  value  of  a  prompt  and  competent 
engine  driver  is  very  obvious ;  his  fuel  and  water 
should  be  taken  on,  and  his  engine  oiled  with  the 
least  delay,  so  that  he  may  be  ready  to  move 
promptly  on  the  signal.  A  freight  train  at  the  sta- 
tion will  often  have  more  or  less  cars  to  be  taken 
out,  and  others  put  in  the  train,  all  of  which  should 
be  done  with  the  utmost  promptness,  to  save  all 
possible  time  for  appropriation  to  moving  on  the 
railway.  It  should  be  the  constant  care  of  the 
managers  to  inculcate  on  the  engine  drivers  the  im- 
portance of  occupying  as  much  as  possible  their 
card  time  in  movement  on  the  track,  and  to  establish 
a  judicious  discrimination  in  favor  of  those  who 
most  effectually  discharge  their  duties. 

The  interests  of  railway  proprietors  are  materially 
affected  by  the  skill  and  fidelity  with  which  the 
engines  are  run,  and  the  very  general  practice  of 
paying  the  drivers  all  alike  is  incompatible  with 
sound  management.  There  is  an  important  differ- 
ence between  a  first-class,  and  a  fair  engine  driver,  and 
of  course  a  greater  difference  between  a  first-class  and 
an  ordinary  driver :  and  though  this  seems  to  have 
received  very  partial  attention,  there  can  be  no 
doubt,  that  a  judicious  system  of  grades,  under  the 
supervision  of  a  competent  foreman  or  master 
mechanic,  would  produce  a  salutary  and  laudable 


224:  RAILWAY   PROPERTY. 

spirit  of  emulation — would  give  satisfaction  to  the 
best  and  most  competent,  and  show  the  careless  and 
unskillful,  the  necessity  of  effort,  cultivation,  and 
fidelity  to  reach  the  first  rank.  A  knowledge  of 
the  manipulations  required  to  start  and  stop,  and  to 
perform  the  current  operations  in  the  ordinary  work 
of  running  an  engine,  is  but  a  small  part  of  the 
accomplishment  of  a  first  class  engine  driver.  He 
must  know  how  to  feel  his  engine,  and  apply  the 
power  judiciously  to  the  work  required;  and  the 
skill  to  do  this  well,  is  only  acquired  by  experience 
and  good  judgment.  The  objection  has  been 
raised,  that  it  would  not  do  to  discriminate,  and  that 
the  attempt  to  establish  grades  of  compensation  and 
service,  would  produce  dissatisfaction ;  but  clearly 
not  with  the  first  class  ;  and  I  can  see  no  force  in 
this  objection,  other  than  appertains  to  any  branch 
of  business.  Certainly,  a  duty  that  involves  so 
much  of  fidelity  and  capacity  as  this,  should  not  be 
left  to  an  indiscriminate  equality  in  rank  and  pay, 
treating  the  best  with  scarcely  a  consideration 
above  the  least  competent ;  a  rule  that  would  be 
discarded  as  inefficient  in  any  other  branch  of 
responsible  business.  To  do  any  business  well,  re- 
quires attention,  firmness,  and  sound  discretion,  and 
that  is  all  that  is  required  in  this. 


OPERATING REPAIRS  OF  TRACK.       225 


CHAPTEE  XIX. 

OPERATING  —  REPAIRS  OF  TRACK.      ; 

THE  repairs  of  track  will  require  attention  as  soon 
as  the  running  of  trains  commences.  If  the  railway 
has  been  thoroughly  constructed,  these  will  be  very 
light  at  first,  and  the  running  may  continue  for  a 
considerable  time  before  the  expense  is  great,  and 
will  be  confined  mostly  to  the  adjustment  of  rails, 
keeping  side  drains  clear,  and  fences  in  order.  The 
bridges,  even  if  of  timber,  if  they  have  been  well 
constructed,  will  require  but  little  attention  for 
some  time.  According  to  the  weight  of  traffic,  the 
expenses  will  gradually  and  pretty  steadily  in- 
crease. It  however  rarely  happens,  that  our  rail- 
ways are  opened  for  use,  on  a  thoroughly  con- 
structed work.  The  more  general  practice  has  been 
to  commence  the  running  as  soon  as  a  train  may 
pass  with  tolerable  safety — the  track  imperfectly 
adjusted,  with  little  or  no  ballast  to  support  it — the 
side  ditches  imperfectly  opened — the  approaches  to 
bridges  indifferently  secured,  and  station  buildings 

10* 


RAILWAY   PROPERTY. 

more  or  less  unfinished,  even  if  commenced.  It  is 
therefore  obvious  that  the  current  expenses  of  main- 
tenance and  repairs  will  be,  at  the  outset  of 
operating  a  railway  like  this,  much  greater  than  on 
a  thoroughly  constructed  work,  without  regard  to 
those  expenses  that  are  properly  chargeable  to  con- 
struction. 

The  usual  mode  of  conducting  repairs  of  track,  is 
by  trac^-masters,  acting  under  the  general  instruc- 
tions of  the  superintendent,  or  his  assistants.  The 
length  of  railway  assigned  to  the  care  of  a  track- 
master,  varies  from  twenty-five  to  seventy-five 
miles,  according  to  the  condition  of  the  work  and  the 
judgment  of  the  superintendent.  It  is  usual  for  the 
track-master  to  divide  his  forces  into  parties  of  four 
to  ten  men,  with  a  foreman  over  each,  occasionally 
bringing  several  of  these  together  to  man  a  gravel 
train,  or  for  other  work  requiring  a  large  force.  He 
will  have  one  or  more  carpenters  to  look  after  and 
repair  bridges,  and  these  are  sometimes  required  to 
attend  to  repairs  of  buildings  at  small  stations. 
Tools  and  materials  for  the  track-master  are  sup- 
plied by  the  storekeeper  of  the  company,  who  keeps 
an  account  of  what  he  furnishes,  charging  the  same 
to  the  track-master.  Such  articles  as  lumber,  cross- 
sleepers,  etc.,  may  be  most  advantageously  obtained 
along  the  line  of  railway,  and  the  track-masters  fre- 


OPERATING REPAIRS    OF   TRACK.  227 

quently  purchase  under  the  direction  of  the  super- 
intendent. 

It  is  the  duty  of  the  track-master  to  understand 
the  condition  of  the  track,  and  all  the  structures 
required  for  its  support :  to  see  that  his  men  are 
properly  distributed  and  arranged  for  efficient 
work,  and  that  the  foremen  are  capable  and  reliable 
men.  The  latter  becomes  more  important  as  the 
length  of  his  district  is  increased,  and  his  time  for 
personal  supervision  over  each  party  is  reduced  ; 
as  in  this  case  he  must  depend  more  on  his  fore- 
men than  would  be  necessary  with  a  less  extent  of 
district.  It  is  not  always  the  practice  to  place  the 
repairs  of  buildings  at  way-stations  in  charge  of  the 
track-master — this  is  sometimes  placed  under  the 
care  of  a  general  superintendent  of  all  the  buildings 
on  the  railway.  The  track-master  is  sometimes 
charged  with  the  purchase,  inspection,  and  mea- 
surement of  wood  for  the  engines.  It  is  his  duty  to 
certify  the  monthly  check-rolls  of  his  men,  and  all 
bills  of  wood  for  fuel  and  articles  he  may  purchase 
or  inspect ;  these  are  also  certified  by  the  superin- 
tendent ;  but  it  is  evident  he  must  rely  mainly  on 
the  track-master  for  the  accuracy  of  the  check-rolls 
and  bills,  though  an  active  and  vigilant  superinten- 
dent may  detect  important  errors,  and  exercise  a 
salutary  supervision. 


228  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

In  addition  to  the  duties  above  stated,  it  is  the 
duty  of  the  track-master  to  see  that  signals  are 
placed  at  any  points  of  danger  that  may  require  the 
train  to  move  with  caution  or  come  to  a  stand ;  and 
if  a  train  be  thrown  from  the  track,  or  break  down, 
to  promptly  supply  sufficient  force  to  clear  the  track 
and  put  affairs  in  order.  Much  depends  on  the 
fidelity,  vigilance,  and  good  judgment  of  this  agent ; 
he  has  large  expenses  in  his  department,  and  his 
forces  are  necessarily  scattered  over  a  large  district. 
There  has  been  much  diversity  of  opinion  as  to  the 
proper  length  of  district  for  a  track-master.  This 
doubtless  depends  measurably  on  the  nature  and 
weight  of  traffic,  the  character  of  the  railway,  and 
his  own  capacity  and  efficiency  for  business.  If  the 
district  is  long,  he  will  take  the  opportunity  of 
trains  to  pass  from  one  point  to  another,  and  seldom 
see  his  track,  except  at  points,  only  as  he  sees  it 
from  the  train  as  he  rapidly  passes  over  it.  This 
practice  may  properly  be  adopted  in  occasional  in- 
stances ;  but  where  it  is  the  means  used  for  the 
greater  part  of  his  movements  for  the  inspection  of 
his  track  and  the  supervision  of  his  men,  it  neces- 
sarily affords  him  but  an  imperfect  knowledge  of 
its  condition,  and  renders  him  more  dependent  on  his 
foremen,  a  class  of  men  not  expected  to  possess  the 
same  capacity  and  judgment  as  himself,  and  there- 


OPERATING REPAIRS    OF    TRACK.  229 

fore  practically  lowering  the  intelligence  it  is  designed 
to  give  to  the  supervision  of  the  track.  There  is 
but  one  way  of  movement  over  his  district  that  will 
enable  a  track-master  to  properly  inspect  his  track 
and  superintend  his  men — namely,  on  foot;  even 
the  hand  car  should  not  supersede  walking  as  the 
usual  practice.  The  hand  car  or  the  train  may 
occasionally  be  very  proper,  when  it  is  necessary  to 
go  quickly  from  one  point  to  another ;  but  at  least, 
as  often  as  once  or  twice  a  week,  the  track-master 
should  pass  carefully  on  foot  over  his  district,  in- 
specting carefully  the  condition  of  the  track  and 
other  works,  and  be  able  to  consider  well  its  condi- 
tion, and  give  full  instructions,  devoting  as  much 
time  as  may  be  necessary  or  practicable  to  his  men, 
in  order  to  understand  well  what  has  been  done 
and  what  is  necessary  to  be  done.  There  can  be 
no  doubt,  the  want  of  thorough  supervision  in  this 
department  has  often  been  the  cause  of  very  serious 
accidents,  causing  much  expense  that  proper  atten- 
tion would  have  saved.  The  mere  neglect  of  a 
side  fence  has  opened  the  passage  for  an  animal  to 
get  on  the  track  and  throw  off  the  train.  This  is 
especially  dangerous  in  the  night,  when  animals  are 
prone  to  lie  down  between  the  rails,  assuming  the 
most  formidable  position  to  throw  off  the  train  with 
disastrous  violence. 


230  RAILWAY   PROPERTY. 

One  of  the  first  things  that  indicates  an  inefficient 
track-master  is  the  neglect  of  the  side  ditches,  and 
consequent  imperfect  drainage  of  the  road-bed. 
This  neglect  will  not  fail  to  increase  the  expense  of 
keeping  the  track  in  order,  and  at  times  of  rain, 
render  it  impossible  to  maintain  it  in  good  adjust- 
ment. To  remedy  this,  more  ballast  must  be  pro- 
vided to  give  temporary  support,  often  at  heavy 
expense,  and  ballast  cannot  give  a  good  track  until 
the  draining  is  properly  attended  to.  A  light  bal- 
last, with  good  drainage,  is  far  better  than  heavy 
ballast,  surcharged  with  water. 

It  often  happens,  that  in  the  construction  of  a 
railway,  even  if  the  general  plan  is  of  a  thorough 
order  of  work,  that  circumstances  lead  to  the  adop- 
tion more  or  less  of  temporary  structures,  that  will 
soon  require  the  substitution  of  more  durable,  if  not 
more  substantial  materials.  It  may  be  that  build- 
ing stone  could  not  be  had  in  reasonable  proximity 
to  the  work,  and  timber  had  to  be  used  for  culverts 
and  bridges,  and  sometimes  for  the  foundations  of 
buildings.  As  noticed  under  the  head  of  "  Con- 
structions," there  is  no  material  equal  to  durable 
Btone  for  culverts  and  bridges;  and  when  it  be- 
comes necessary,  for  want  of  this  material,  to  use 
timber,  it  should  be  regarded  only  as  t  temporary. 
So  far  as  timber  may  have  been  adopted,  the  pro- 


OPERATING REPAIRS   OF  TRACK.  231 

cess  of  superseding  it  with  more  durable  materials 
should  be  commenced  as  soon  as  those  materials 
can  be  commanded,  and  the  work  proceeded  with 
as  circumstances  may  require.  It  may  be  assumed 
that  substantial  works  of  timber  may  be  relied  on 
from  five  to  ten  years,  according  to  durability  and 
exposure ;  and  by  commencing  soon  after  the  rail- 
way is  put  in  operation,  the  work  of  substitution 
may  be  carried  forward  gradually  and  with  econo- 
my. The  engineer  of  the  company  should  carefully 
examine  and  decide  on  the  most  important  struc- 
tures for  the  commencement  of  this  work,  keeping 
in  view  the  current  necessities  of  the  track,  and  the 
probable  comparative  durability  of  the  structures. 
It  may  happen  that  the  finances  of  the  company 
will  not  admit  of  a  complete  substitution  of  all  dur- 
ing the  life  of  the  timber  structures ;  in  which  case 
the  engineer  should  proceed  on  those  most  impor- 
tant, and  so  far  as  renewal  with  timber  may  be  ne- 
cessary, see  that  this  is  done  in  good  season,  to 
effectually  guard  against  any  giving  away  that 
might  cause  accident  to  the  passing  trains.  "Wooden 
bridges  are  often  built  over  valleys  that  have  very 
small,  or  perhaps  no  permanent  water-courses,  and 
are  proper  situations  for  culverts  of  stone  sur- 
mounted with  an  embankment  of  earth.  I  have 
known  cases  where  the  bridge  cost  nearly,  and  some- 


232  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

times  quite  as  much  as  the  culvert  and  embani 
ment  would  have  cost,  if  stone  could  have  been  had 
for  the  culvert  in  the  vicinity  of  the  work.  In  con- 
sidering the  renewal,  the  question  will  probably  be 
entirely  changed  by  the  facility  the  railway  will 
afford  in  transporting  stone  from  distant  quarries, 
which  by  ordinary  roads  were  out  of  reach  in  the 
original  construction ;  and  the  economy  of  the  case 
in  renewal  would  be  entirely  changed,  requiring 
thorough  examination,  so  that  perishable  works  be 
not  rebuilt  in  situations  of  this  kind,  where  no  mate- 
rial saving  in  cost  can  be  secured  by  adopting  the 
original  plan.  In  no  case  should  a  wooden  bridge 
be  neglected,  if  a  doubt  may  exist  as  to  its  safety 
for  the  passing  trains. 

As  the  work  of  renewal  with  durable  materials 
goes  on,  the  railway  will  be  steadily  assuming  a 
more  substantial  and  permanent  character,  render- 
ing it  more  secure  for  the  passage  of  trains,  and 
diminishing  the  expense  of  repairs  and  maintenance. 

In  the  maintenance  of  track,  a  very  important 
duty  should  rest  on  the  engineer,  to  see  that  the 
original  drainage  proves  adequate  for  maintaining 
a  dry  road-bed ;  and  if  not,  to  devise  and  pro- 
ceed with  measures  that  will  effectually  secure  this 
object ;  a  branch  of  railway  affairs  that  demands 
the  most  diligent  attention.  As  this,  together  with 


OPERATING REPAIRS  OF  TRACK.        233 

the  kind  of  material  for  bridges,  has  been  pretty 
fully  discussed  under  the  head  of  construction,  it 
does  not  appear  necessary  to  say  more  in  reference 
to  .them  in  this  place.  Whatever  is  necessary  for  the 
construction  of  a  track  and  its  appurtenances,  is  to 
be  maintained  in  the  work  of  repairs  and  renewal. 

For  a  time  after  a  railway  track  is  opened  for  use, 
no  great  expense  for  the  renewal  of  rails  and  cross 
sleepers  will  be  required.  The  length  of  this  time 
will  depend  on  the  quality  of  the  materials,  the 
amount  of  the  traffic,  and  the  weight  of  machinery 
used.  As  decay  and  wear  produce  .their  effects  on 
those  materials,  the  expenses  of  repairs  and  main- 
tenance must  necessarily  increase,  until  they  reach 
a  point  that  will  require  an  annual  expense,  vary- 
ing each  year,  but  forming  an  approximate  average 
in  a  series  of  five  years.  The  sleepers  will  begin  to 
fail  ordinarily  in  about  five  years,  while  a  portion 
may  last  eight  years  ;  the  rail  will  be  very  depend- 
ent in  its  wear  on  the  weight  and  speed  of  the 
machinery  used ;  the  latter  will  be  more  important 
than  the  extent  of  the  traffic.  The  circumstance  of 
increasing  expenses,  at  least  for  a  few  years,  indi- 
cates the  propriety  of  holding  in  reserve  a  portion  of 
the  net  earnings,  to  meet  future  expenses,  if  it  be 
the  purpose  to  maintain  regularity  and  uniformity 
in  dividends  to  the  proprietors. 


234  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 


CHAPTER  XX. 

OPERATING REPAIRS    OF   MACHINERY. 

THE  English  term  is  "  rolling  stock,"  frequently 
termed  "  the  plant."  In  this  country,  the  terms 
"equipment"  and  "machinery"  are  both  used.  I 
Bee  no  more  propriety  in  applying  the  term  equip- 
ment to  railway  machinery  than  to  cotton  or  woollen 
machinery ;  it  is  purely  a  technical  term  in  military 
affairs,  and  its  application  to  civil,  is  an  innovation 
that  may  be  applied  with  as  much  propriety  to  all 
other  as  to  railway  machinery ;  and  it  would  be 
much  more  appropriate  to  apply  it  to  farm  tools 
than  to  the  machinery  of  a  railway.  Rolling  stock 
is  a  more  expressive  and  better  term ;  but  I  con- 
sider it  fully  entitled  to  the  term  "  machinery,"  and 
therefore  use  it.  There  is  a  portion  of  stationary 
machinery  used  in  the  railway  repair  shops,  but 
what  is  understood  generally  by  the  term  railway 
machinery  is  that  adapted  to  motion  on  the  track. 

The  machinery  of  a  railway  peculiarly  requires 
to  be  kept  in  good  order ;  and  as  soon  as  the  ope- 
rating service  is  commenced,  this  kind  of  repair 


OPERATING REPAIRS   OF   MACHINERY.  235 

will  demand  attention.  With  a  new  stock  in  good 
order,  it  should  not  for  some  time  involve  heavy 
expenses ;  but  they  will  steadily  increase,  and  even- 
tually become  a  large  item.  Unless  when '  radical 
changes  are  found  expedient  in  the  plan  of  ma- 
chinery, the  repairs  will  be  a  perpetuation  of  each 
machine.  There  may,  and  probably  will  be  cases 
where  a  coach  or  car  may  be  so  entirely  destroyed 
as  to  leave  nothing  to  rebuild  upon ;  but  I  have 
never  known  an  engine  to  be  so  destroyed  that 
there  was  not  sufficient  left  on  which  to  rebuild. 
In  the  ordinary  deterioration,  it  will  be  found  that 
new  parts  may  be  advantageously  ingrafted  with 
those  that  have  suffered  a  comparatively  mode- 
rate degree  of  wear,  and  still  sufficient  for  much 
useful  service.  In  this  way  one  part  after  an- 
other is  substituted,  until  there  may  be  nothing 
of  the  original  structure  left ;  still  it  is  practically 
the  same  engine,  coach  or  car,  with  the  same  name 
or  number ;  the  repairs,  therefore,  involve  the 
renewal  and  complete  maintenance  of  the  ma- 
chinery, and  will  demand  shop  accommodations 
and  stationary  power  sufficient  for  this  object. 

This  department  of  business  is  placed  under  the 
supervision  of  a  master-machinist,  who  is  not  only 
charged  with  the  works  of  the  shop,  but  with  the 
direction  of  the  engine  drivers  and  firemen,  as  to 


236  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

their  order  of  service  and  their  general  duties.  It 
is  for  him  to  judge  of  their  capacity  and  grade  of 
service,  and  to  correct  any  delinquency  in  duty. 
On  some  important  railways  there  is  a  master-car- 
penter, who  has  charge  of  all  woodwork,  and  is  in- 
dependent of  the  master-mechanic ;  on  others,  the 
master-carpenter  is  subject  to  the  general  supervi- 
sion of  the  master-machinist,  though  the  latter  has 
no  specific  charge  of  the  workmen  in  the  carpen- 
ter's department.  The  latter  plan  I  regard  as  the 
best,  as  it  is  better  to  have  a  single  head  in  such  an 
establishment,  where  the  works  of  the  two  branches 
must  be  brought  together,  and  the  order  of  work  in 
each  should  be  so  directed  that  delay  in  the  work 
of  one  may  not  embarrass  the  progress  of  the  other, 
or  disturb  the  efficient  harmony  of  the  system  of 
which  this  department  is  a  portion.  This  leaves  the 
master-carpenter  independent,  so  far  as  relates  to 
the  employment  and  control  of  his  men,  and  in  the 
management  of  the  affairs  of  his  shop,  subject  only 
to  general  direction  in  the  order  and  plan  of  work 
as  the  master-machinist  may  regard  proper. 

The  master-machinist  has  the  general  supervision 
of  such  secondary  shops  as,  in  some  cases,  are  esta- 
blished at  the  end  of  routes  for  the  purpose  of  mak- 
ing small  repairs,  required  to  keep  the  machinery 
in  use,  or  to  enable  it  to  run  to  the  principal  shop. 


OPERATING REPAIRS    OF    MACHINERY.  237 

The  master-machinist  requires  a  clerk  and  time- 
keeper (those  at  shops  of  small  business  may  be 
both  in  the  same  person),  to  enable  him  to  keep  his 
accounts  so  as  to  charge  to  each  machine  the  ex- 
penses incurred  on  its  repairs,  and  for  the  general 
accounts  of  his  department.  It  is  indispensable  to 
a  good  administration  of  business,  that  a  strict 
account  should  be  kept  of  the  cost  of  repairs  on 
each  machine  ;  this  will  show  the  quality  and  value 
of  each — and  is  particularly  important  in  respect  to 
engines,  as  it  will  indicate  the  care  and  skill  with 
which  they  are  run.  It  will  also  show  the  expense 
of  each  department  of  traffic,  so  far  as  respects  the 
machinery,  an  item  of  information  important  to  be 
known  by  the  superintendent,  that  rates  may  be  pro- 
perly adjusted  to  the  expenses,  and  that  he  may 
know  to  what  extent  he  may  go  in  cultivating  a 
doubtful  branch  of  business.  On  this  plan  the  re- 
pairs of  passenger  machinery  and  that  for  freight 
are  kept  separate ;  a  distinction  that  cannot  with 
exactness  be  maintained  in  the  repairs  of  track, 
though  quite  practicable  for  machinery,  and  should 
not  be  neglected. 

The  master-machinist  will  require  a  number  of  fore- 
men, who  should  be  experienced  mechanics,  to  take 
the  special  charge  of  the  different  branches  of  work. 

In  addition  to  the  work  of  repairs,  it  is  the  duty 


238  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

of  the  master-machinist  to  keep  an  account  of  the 
miles  run  by  each  engine — the  oil  and  waste  used 
by  each  of  the  engine-men ;  and  to  these  is,  in  rare 
cases  added,  what  should  always  be  done,  the 
amount  of  fuel  used  by  each,  which  will  be  further 
discussed  hereafter. 

The  master-machinist  occupies  a  station  of  much 
responsibility ;  to  fill  it  properly,  it  is  not  merely 
necessary  that  he  should  be  a  good  mechanic ;  he 
should  add  to  this  a  knowledge  of  the  essential 
principles  of  machinery,  and  a  good  general  know- 
ledge of  business,  that  he  may  comprehend  the 
system  required  to  carry  forward  with  order,  regu- 
larity, and  efficiency  the  various  works  .committed 
to  his  charge.  He  should  also  be  able  to  judge  of 
the  qualifications  of  his  workmen,  and  to  enforce 
proper  discipline ;  the  latter  is  peculiarly  import- 
ant in  respect  to  his  engine  drivers,  who,  during 
most  of  their  time  on  the  trains,  will  be  out  of  the 
range  of  his  personal  inspection;  and  on  whose 
fidelity  and  skill  much  will  depend  in  the  repairs 
of  machinery.  To  a  railway  of  any  considerable 
importance,  it  is  poor  economy  to  employ  an  in- 
ferior man  as  master-machinist,  on  the  competent 
and  faithful  performance  of  whose  duties  so  much 
of  the  economy  and  efficiency  of  the  operating  de- 
partment depend. 


OPERATING CIVIL   ENGINEER.  289 


CHAPTER  XXI. 

OPERATING CIVIL    ENGINEER. 

THERE  are  some  railways  that  regularly  employ  a 
civil  engineer,  and  others  that  do  not.  In  some  in- 
stances the  superintendent  of  the  railway  is  a  civil 
engineer ;  but  his  duties  are  necessarily  so  general, 
that  he  can  give  but  little  attention  to  those 
peculiar  to  engineering.  Some  managers  are  pre- 
judiced against  the  employment  of  an  engineer 
after  the  railway  is  put  in  operation,  which  is  a 
short-sighted  view  of  the  subject,  and  not  at  all 
consistent  with  a  proper  knowledge  of  the  duties 
required.  It  is  true,  some  railways  are  managed 
without  the  aid  of  an  engineer ;  in  such  cases 
various  works  will  be  put  up  by  ordinary  me- 
chanics, who  sometimes  manifest  very  good  judg- 
ment, more  particularly  on  works  of  minor  import- 
ance ;  but  in  general  (not  that  the  mechanic  cannot 
execute  well  any  work  in  his  trade,  but  from  want 
of  the  experience  required,  he  may  not  comprehend 
the  kind  of  structure  most  suitable  for  the  object), 
it  will  be  found  that  they  are  deficient  in  system, 


24-0  RAILWAY   PROPERTY. 

often  entail  much  unnecessary  expense,  and  fail  to 
produce  the  regularity,  economy,  and  efficiency 
that  would  result  from  the  supervision  of  a  compe- 
tent engineer.  It  is  the  engineer's  business  to 
study  thoroughly  the  wants  of  the  railway,  in 
regard  to  the  track  and  its  appurtenances — the 
effect  of  the  action  of  the  machinery  upon  it — the 
kind  of  machinery  that  will  produce  the  most 
economical  transportation — and  the  most  favorable 
arrangement  for  the  stations,  station-buildings,  and 
shop  accommodations.  He  should  be  the  autho- 
rized adviser  of  the  master-machinist  and  track- 
master,  and  superintend  all  contract  work  for 
renewals  of  bridges,  culverts,  buildings,  and  ma- 
chinery. By  his  connection  with  the  track  and 
machinery,  he  will  be  able  to  judge  of  the  effect  of 
one  on  the  other,  and  by  general  observation  and 
carefully  conducted  experiments,  will  come  to  a 
more  thorough  understanding  of  the  interests  of  the 
railway,  than  will  be  likely  to  be  reached  in  any 
other  way. 

These  views  may  fairly  be  urged  on  general 
principles ;  as  a  man  who  is  educated  to  a  par- 
ticular business — whose  time  is  devoted  to  a  full 
understanding  of  its  requirements — and  who  is 
stimulated  by  the  consideration  of  professional 
reputation,  is  more  likely  to  conduct  affairs  advan- 


OPERATING CIVIL   ENGINEER.  24:1 

tageously  than  one  who  picks  up  his  ideas  at 
random,  and  though  doing  some  things  very  well, 
will  probably  often  fail  in  respect  to  others.  Cer- 
tainly, the  important  matter  of  maintaining  the 
track  and  machinery  of  a  railway  should  be  com- 
mitted to  the  most  competent  hands.  My  own  ex- 
perience and  observation  fully  sustain  the  pro- 
priety of  the  course  of  management  recommended. 
Any  other  course  is  precisely  like  giving  the  pre- 
ference in  a  business  to  a  man  who  has  not  made 
it  his  study,  or  practised  the  arts  involved  in  its 
current  transactions ;  a  course  that  is  not  practised 
by  intelligent  men  in  other  departments  of  labor  or 
"business.  To  this  argument  it  may  be  said,  that 
men  have  managed  railways  successfully  who  have 
had  no  previous  training.  The  reply  to  this  is : 
That  such  have  mostly  been  on  short  railways,  with 
little  or  no  rival  interests  that  called  for  close  and 
strict  management ;  and  that  they  have  depended  on 
the  master-machinist  for  all  that  related .  to  ma- 
chinery, and  on  the  track-master  for  the  manage- 
ment of  the  track ;  and  though  by  a  ready  facility 
of  adaptation  they  have  succeeded  very  well,  there 
can  be  no  doubt  that  they  managed  better  as  they 
acquired  knowledge  and  experience.  The  success 
of  such  may  be  compared  to  that  of  a  man,  who, 
never  having  learned  the  trade,  begins  to  make 

11 


242  RAILWAY   PROPERTY. 

shoes.  At  first  lie  makes  slow  work,  getting  infor- 
mation any  way  he  may,  and  by  perseverance 
makes  progress  according  to  his  aptness  for  the 
work,  and  though  he  spoil  much  leather,  eventually 
may  become  an  expert  shoemaker,  having  lost 
much  time  and  material  in  acquiring  the  art.  So 
it  may  readily  be  perceived,  that  the  company  must 
expend  more  or  less  to  educate  their  man,  if  he  has 
not  previously  been  educated.  The  evidence  of  this 
I  have  often  seen  in  the  machinery  used  on  railways ; 
very  powerful  it  may  be,  but  so  damaging  to  the 
track  and  the  repair  shop,  that  if  it  could  not  be  ap- 
propriated for  its  material,  the  interest  of  the  proprie- 
tors would  be  best  consulted  by  dropping  it  in  some 
abyss,  too  deep  to  admit  the  hope  of  recovery. 

The  perfection  of  machinery  has  thus  far  been 
dependent  mostly  on  the  machinist,  and  on  the 
competition  of  rival  manufacturers;  and  in  this 
way  much  has  been  done  to  make  powerful  and 
effective  machines.  I  have  known  some  very  in- 
telligent and  excellent  machinists  who  have  contri- 
buted largely  to  improvement  in  the  arrangement 
and  workmanship  in  this  department,  to  whom  the 
public  and  the  railway  interest  are  greatly  indebted. 
At  the  same  time,  I  have  rarely  noticed  in  them 
any  special  concern  as  to  the  effect  of  their 
machines  on  the  track. 


OPERATING CIVIL   ENGINEER.  243 

It  has  been  the  general  practice  to  commit  the 
care  of  machinery  to  the  master-machinist,  and  this 
is  proper  in  all  that  relates  to  manipulations,  and, 
to  a  large  extent,  to  the  plans  of  work ;  but,  as  be- 
fore observed,  this  class  of  men  rarely  give  much 
attention  to  the  influence  of  their  machinery  on  the 
track,  nor  can  this  be  expected,  as  they  have  no 
supervision  of  the  track.  They  regard  the  power 
of  their  machinery  as  the  best  and  proper  indication 
of  their  ability  as  machinists,  and  consider  that  the 
track  should  be  able  to  bear  it ;  and  if  it  does  not 
actually  break  down  under  the  service  of  the  train, 
the  machinery  is  regarded  as  all  right — draws  large 
trains  and  runs  high  speed.  The  machinist  has  no 
care,  and  takes  no  note  of  those  every-day  expenses 
that  are  required  to  keep  the  track  in  adjustment. 
Then  the  track-master  has  no  charge  of  the  machi- 
nery, and  rarely  realizes  that  it  involves  any  ques- 
tion in  relation  to  his  duties,  but  goes  on  as  best 
he  may  to  make  his  track  capable  of  sustaining  the 
service.  Thus  nothing  can  be  more  clear  than  that 
the  track  and  machinery  should  be  under  the  gene- 
ral supervision  of  the  same  man,  who  should  be 
capable  of  comprehending  not  only  the  adaptation 
of  one  to  the  other,  but  the  service  of  each  in  effect- 
ing the  most  economical  transportation  of  the  traffic 
to  be  provided  for.  To  merely  run  trains,  is  a 


244  RAILWAY   PROPERTY. 

thing  that  may  be  done  with  small  experience :  To 
run  trains  and  manage  the  track  and  machinery,  so 
as  to  effect  the  most  economical  transport,  is  a  very 
different  thing,  and  as  yet  very  imperfectly  studied. 

I  am  well  aware,  that  a  large  proportion  of  rail- 
way superintendents  will  not  concur  in  the  views 
here  advanced.  For  some  reason  which  it  is  not 
necessary  to  discuss,  they  seem  to  have  an  aversion 
to  civil  engineers,  and  usually  contrive  to  get  them 
off  the  railway,  or  restrict  their  authority  to  a  very 
limited  iield.  They  seem  willing  to  see  them  em- 
ployed in  hunting  up  maps  and  examining  doubtful 
questions  on  right  of  way — occasionally  to  set 
levels,  stake  out  work,  and  compute  contracts ;  all 
of  which  are  their  proper  duties ;  but  further  than 
this  they  will  not  tolerate.  Thus,  under  these  cir- 
cumstances, the  engineer  cannot  enter  on  the  main 
and  more  important  field  of  duties  which  his  pro- 
fession should  enable  him  to  fill  more  effectually 
and  beneficially  than  any  other  person. 

In  the  duty  of  selecting  an  engineer  for  the  re- 
sponsible charge  here  recommended,  it  is  necessary 
to  exercise  the  same  scrutiny,  the  same  practical 
sagacity,  that  is  called  for  in  other  departments  of 
business.  What,  then,  is  the  course  ordinarily  pur- 
sued by  business  men  ?  If  a  man  has  on  hand  an 
important  litigation,  he  does  not  take  the  first  law- 


OPERATING CIVIL    ENGINEER.  245 

yer  he  meets,  nor  in  case  of  ill  health,  the  first 
physician  that  may  chance  to  be  named,  or  come 
in  his  way.  He  is  not  satisfied  with  the  mere  pro- 
fessional title.  The  title  of  lawyer  or  physician  is 
good  as  far  as  it  goes,  or  is  sustained,  and  the  same 
for  an  engineer.  But  the  man  sought  is  one  well 
skilled  in  his  profession,  and  capable  of  rendering 
the  special  service  for  which  he  is  wanted.  A  busi- 
ness may  be  badly  done  by  a  professional  man,  and 
the  responsibility  of  failure  may  rest  mainly  on  the 
employing  party,  who  has  failed  to  exercise  due 
discretion  in  the  selection  of  his  agent.  Men  may, 
and  often  do,  bear  the  professional  title  of  civil 
engineer,  as  well  as  of  lawyer  and  physician,  with 
very  slender  qualifications.  It  is  not  the  mere 
scientific  engineer,  who  may  bewilder  with  hair- 
spun  and  useless  calculations,  nor  the  practical 
engineer',  who  may  be  able  to  collect  statistics,  run 
levels,  set  pegs  and  stakes,  copy  drawings,  and 
make  out  estimates  for  contractors,  if  these  be  the 
end  of  his  accomplishments,  that  is  needed.  For 
the  object  here  proposed,  the  engineer  should  be 
familiar  with  mechanical  principles — understand 
well  the  strength,  durability,  and  adaptation  of 
materials — by  experience,  observation  and  study, 
should  have  a  fund  of  practical  information  at  com- 
mand, that  may  be  available  as  occasion  or  emer- 

X^^JC^ -^  "^>£p^S. 

& 


UHIVBRSITT 


246  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

gency  may  require.  It  is,  moreover,  necessary  for 
him  to  be  a  good  business  man,  familiar  with  the 
varied  interests  of  a  railway,  in  which  he  will  find 
ample  scope  for  sound  practical  sense  and  ex- 
perience in  his  dealings  with  both  men  and  things. 
Not  a  man  that  is  punctilious  of  his  dignity,  and 
unwilling  to  profit  by  a  good  hint  from  the  most 
humble  workman,  but  ready  to  rest  his  standing  on 
his  good  sense — his  frankness  and  uprightness  in 
intercourse  with  others.  Such  a  man  will  never 
have  occasion  to  complain  of  a  want  of  respect  in 
his  business  intercourse.  The  list  of  criterions 
would  be  incomplete  if  the  too-prevalent  vice  of  a 
speculative  spirit  (the  quicksand  that  has  sometimes 
destroyed  or  perverted  the  best  talents  of  an  engi- 
neer) was  omitted.  An  engineer  should  be  so  com- 
pletely content  with  his  salary  that  his  mind  would 
be  wholly  devoted  to  the  work  placed  under  his 
charge,  and  his  own  happiness  as  much  concerned 
as  that  of  the  proprietors  in  obtaining  a  favorable 
result  for  the  enterprise.  Not  less  than  for  a  law- 
yer, physician,  or  merchant,  an  engineer,  to  succeed 
well,  must  enjoy  his  profession,  and  find  his  chief 
recreation  in  the  cares,  duties,  and  results  of  his 
labors. 

It  will  be  asked :  "  Where  are  you  to  find  men 
of  this  grade  for  all  the  railways  ?"     Certainly  we 


OPERATING CIVIL    ENGINEER.  247 

do  not  find  ally  in  any  profession,  to  come  up  to  this 
standard,  and  probably  no  more  can  be  said  for  that 
of  engineers  than  for  others ;  and  the  same  course 
must  be  taken  in  one  case  as  in  others.  A  man 
will  seek  an  agent  according  to  the  importance  of 
the  service  he  requires ;  one  of  moderate  or  high 
attainments,  as  in  his  judgment  may  be  necessary 
for  the  business  he  has  to  provide  for.  There  is  no 
difference  in  providing  for  a  railway  ;  the  most  im- 
portant will  demand  the  best  experience  and  quali- 
fications. First  of  all,  see  that  the  engineer  is  a 
man  of  prudent  habits,  sound  practical  sense  and 
fidelity — such  a  man,  with  fair  elementary  qualifi- 
cations and  experience,  will  fill  most  of  the  duties 
required,  and  steadily  improve  by  experience  in  the 
special  service  that  may  be  involved  in  the  work 
required  to  be  managed  ;  and  although  he  may  not 
at  first  be  able  to  fully  meet  the  requirements  of  the 
situation,  will,  from  his  education,  have  a  ready 
adaptation,  and  be  likely  to  improve  in  qualifica- 
tions, so  as  to  meet  all  the  duties  and  successfully 
conduct  the  business  that  may  be  committed  so  his 
charge.  No  engineer  can  go  upon  a  new  work  and 
not  find  something  peculiar,  that  will  demand  his 
careful  reflection,  and  the  deliberate  consideration  of 
any  advice  that  he  may  receive ;  and  nothing  so  fully 
reveals  his  incapacity  as  a  pretentious  assumption 


248  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

of  knowledge,  claiming  to  understand  everything. 
In  short,  the  same  business  sagacity  that  is  required 
in  other  important  affairs  is  required  in  this,  and 
will  have  the  same  prospect  of  being  rewarded  with 
success. 

I  have  been  thus  particular  on  this  point,  from 
having  observed  very  indiscreet  selections,  and  from 
the  conviction  that  incompetent  engineering  should 
be  held  in  the  same  light  as  in  competency  in  any 
other  profession ;  and  from  the  conviction  I  have 
long  felt,  that  much  of  the  prejudice  entertained 
against  their  proper  position  in  the  management  of 
railways,  has  resulted  from  or  been  perpetuated  by 
injudicious  selections. 

The  difficulties  in  railway  management,  noticed 
in  a  former  part  of  this  work,  arising  from  their 
recent  introduction  and  rapid  extension,  has  neces- 
sarily led  to  much  imperfection,  and  the  engineer- 
ing profession  has  not  kept  pace  with  demands  so 
hastily  urged  upon  its  attention  ;  and  having  been 
mostly  occupied  in  works  of  construction,  engineers 
have  not  generally  had  time  and  opportunity  for  that 
close  attention  that  is  necessary  to  render  them  as 
useful  as  they  should  be,  in  the  maintenance  of  rail- 
ways. Notwithstanding  this  deficiency  must  be  ad- 
mitted as  of  general  application,  it  does  not  change 
the  position  of  this  question ;  for  when  they  are 


OPERATING CIVIL   ENGINEER.  24:9 

placed  in  their  proper  position  in  the  management, 
they  are,  from  their  professional  training,  experi 
ence,  and  habits  of  careful  study,  more  likely  to 
succeed  in  perfecting  this  branch  of  service  than 
men  who  are  not  especially  fitted  by  professional 
acquirement. 

It  will  be  admitted  that  training  of  some  sort  is 
necessary  for  every  department  of  labor  or  business. 
It  must  also  be  admitted,  that  youth  is  the  most 
favorable,  as  well  as  the  most  economical  season  for 
acquiring  elementary  knowledge.  At  a  later  period 
in  life,  the  mind  is  diverted  by  various  objects — 
time  is  more  valuable,  and  elementary  learning,  if 
it  be  sought  in  the  age  of  maturer  manhood,  will  be 
sought  as  a  necessity,  not  as  an  appropriate  pursuit, 
and  is  likely  to  be  hurried  and  imperfect.  The 
same  may  be  said  of  any  branch  of  art ;  there  is  no 
time  of  life  for  the  training  in  elementary  art  or 
knowledge  so  valuable  or  economical  as  youth. 
Though  there  are  exceptions,  it  is  a  general  truth, 
that  it  is  expensive  to  learn  a  new  occupation  in 
maturer  manhood ;  and,  consequently,  the  railway 
company  that  commit  their  business  to  unskilled  or 
uneducated  men,  must  be  at  the  expense  of  educat- 
ing them  during  their  supervision  of  business,  and 
while  they  are  learning  its  arts  and  duties ;  mean- 
while depending  on  advice,  trusting  to  th*3  guide  ot 
11* 


250  RAILWAY    PEOPERTY. 

others  as  they  may  chance,  to  find  out  matters  be- 
yond  their  own  powers  of  criticism.  Can  there  be 
a  doubt  that  the  proceedings  of  the  pupil  will 
often  be  undecided,  wavering,  and  wanting  in  that 
system  indispensable  to  the  efficient  and  successful 
conduct  of  intricate  and  important  business  ?  Now, 
it  has  happened  that  such,  in  some  cases,  have  even- 
tually acquired  a  good  knowledge  of  business,  but 
it  is  obvious  that  this  education  has  been  of  the 
most  expensive  kind,  and  what  is  particularly  im- 
portant, it  has  been  at  the  expense  of  the  proprie- 
tors, who  paid  a  salary  while  the  incumbent  was 
obtaining  the  qualifications  that  would  enable  him 
to  earn  it. 

If  in  the  construction  of  a  wooden  building,  the 
proprietor  would  trust  its  care  only  to  a  carpenter, 
who  had  the  reputation  of  proficiency  in  his  art, 
why  should  the  intricate  affairs  of  the  track,  ma- 
chinery, workshops,  and  appendages  of  a  railway 
be  committed  to  men  who  had  no  previous  educa- 
tion in  the  skill  and  arts  required  to  be  practised  ? 
Certainly  there  is  but  one  excuse  that  can  justify 
such  a  proceeding — namely,  that  the  properly  edu- 
cated man  could  not  be  found. 


OPERATING UUPERINTENDENT.        251 


CHAPTER  XXII. 

OPERATING SUPERINTENDENT. 

IN  conducting  the  operating  affairs  of  a  railway, 
the  superintendent  has  the  general  oversight  of  all 
departments  of  its  business.  This  at  least  is  the 
American  plan.  It  has  the  advantage  of  maintain- 
ing system,  and  the  proper  harmony  and  efficiency 
of  every  department  of  the  service.  This  is  entirely 
consistent  with  the  efficiency  and  responsibility  of 
those  having  the  care  of  separate  branches  of 
duty. 

The  more  especial  duty  of  the  superintendent  is 
to  arrange  the  running  of  trains — establish  time- 
tables— see  that  the  trains  are  regularly  run — that 
station  duties  are  well  administered — to  establish 
rules  and  regulations  for  the  government  of  all 
charged  with  the  conduct  of  train  or  station  duties 
— see  that  full  statistics  of  traffic  and  expenses  are 
prepared,  so  as  to  form  an  intelligent  basis  of  busi 
ness — obtain  information  of  the  sources  of  traffic 
and  its  productiveness  in  all  its  particulars,  so  as  to 
be  able  to  judge  of  its  profitableness,  and  whether 


252  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

in  any  respect  it  fails  to  afford  proper  remunera- 
tion ;  and  under  the  advice  of  the  board  of  mana- 
gers, to  establish  the  tariff  rates  for  freight  and 
passengers.  It  is  especially  his  duty  to  study  care- 
fully the  statistics  of  expense,  in  the  several 
branches,  so  as  to  be  able  to  judge  as  to  the  most 
economical  method  of  conducting  the  traffic,  and 
thereby  be  able  to  establish  such  rules  and  regula- 
tions as  will  produce  the  best  result  to  the  proprie- 
tors. In  the  numerous  and  often  complicated 
duties  involved  in  railway  management,  this  will 
call  out  the  best  capacity  and  the  most  diligent  ap- 
plication of  the  superintendent. 

In  some  cases,  the  president  of  the  railway  com- 
pany acts  as  superintendent ;  a  method  that  may 
answer  on  short  or  unimportant  railways,  but  can- 
not be  recommended  for  other  cases.  The  presi- 
dent should  be  the  organ  of  the  board  of  directors, 
and  so  far  as  he  gives  attention  to  the  operating 
department,  it  should  be  as  the  medium  of  the 
board,  and  the  general  executive  head  of  the  insti- 
tution, in  which  capacity  he  would  confer  with, 
advise  and  direct  the  superintendent.  The  two 
officers  should  be  kept  distinct,  as  admitting  a  better 
organization,  with  salutary  checks,  and  especially 
as  between  those  general  officers  appointed  by  the 
board  of  directors,  and  those  appointed  by  the 


OPERATING SUPERINTENDENT.  253 

superintendent,  which  is  important  in  securing  har- 
mony and  efficient  cooperation. 

The  superintendent  should  appoint  or  select  for 
employment  all  persons  in  the  operating  depart- 
ment, except  the  heads  of  important  subordinate 
departments,  who,  though  to  some  extent  subject 
to  his  general  direction  under  the  by-laws  and 
regulations  of  the  company,  should  be  appointed  by 
the  board  of  directors.  With  the  power  to  appoint, 
he  should  have  the  power  to  dismiss  any  that  may 
be  delinquent  in  duty.  This  is  indispensable  to  the 
maintenance  of  discipline,  and  the  exercise  of  pro- 
per responsibility. 

On  railways  having  important  business  connec- 
tions, forming  a  general  line  with  other  railways, 
there  will  be  much  to  demand  attention  from  the 
superintendent  in  arrangements  for  the  running  of 
trains,  and  for  tariff  rates,  for  the  common  traffic 
of  the  line  in  connection.  This  duty  is  often  em- 
barrassed by  the  conflicting  interests  as  to  rates  of 
speed  as  well  as  rates  of  tariff,  and  requires  much 
experience  and  sound  discretion  in  its  manage- 
ment. 

In  all  arrangements  for  special  rates  of  traffic,  it 
is  the  province  of  the  superintendent  to  direct  and 
control  proceedings — a  duty  that  is  often  diffi- 
cult as  it  is  liable  to  conflict  with  the  regular  rates, 


254:  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

and  to  give  rise  to  dissatisfaction  among  the  custom- 
ers of  the  company,  and  is  in  danger  of  interference 
with  the  regular  checks  of  business.  So  far  as 
practicable,  it  is  best  to  avoid  special  rates;  still, 
there  may  be  items  of  traffic  that  will  afford  a 
beneficial  result,  and  can  be  commanded  in  no 
other  way. 

It  is  obvious  that  the  superintendent  has  charge, 
especially,  of  much  that  can  only  be  occasionally 
under  his  personal  supervision.  The  trains  are,  at 
different  points,  scattered  over  the  whole  length  of 
the  railway,  depending  on  their  conductors  and 
men  under  their  charge.  The  station  agents  are 
equally  removed  from  his  eye,  and  he  must  depend 
mostly  on  the  fidelity  of  reports,  to  know  how  business 
is  conducted.  The  extensive  use  of  the  telegraph, 
greatly  aids  the  superintendent  in  obtaining  infor- 
mation of  what  is  going  on,  at  distant  points,  but 
there  is  still  much  that  he  can  rarely  know.  Many 
improper  things  may  occur  on  the  railway  and  still 
the  train  come  in  in  time,  such  as  fast  running 
between  stations,  and  particularly  with  freight 
trains,  and  the  time  thus  gained  improperly  wasted 
at  the  stations ;  some  one  will  know  the  fact,  whose 
duty  it  may  be  to  report  it ;  but  the  repugnance  of 
one  employee  to  report  the  breach  of  rules  by  an- 
other, is  such,  that  the  report  will  often  be  ne^ 


OPERATING SUPERINTENDENT.        255 

looted,  especially  if  it  be  of  a  nature  the  omission 
of  which  is  not  liable  to  exposure.  Hence,  the 
most  important  qualification  in  a  superintendent 
is,  the  ability  to  discriminate  character,  and 
thereby  place  in  all  positions  men  suitable  for  the 
duty,  both  in  regard  to  capacity  and  fidelity.  In 
any  event  he  must  largely  trust  them,  and  his  de- 
portment toward  them  should  be  that  of  con- 
fidence, until  he  has  evidence  that  they  are  not 
worthy,  and  then  having  carefully  ascertained  the 
fact,  he  should  at  once  dismiss  them,  without  parley. 
Some  men  are  so  distrustful  of  others,  that  their 
manners  toward  them  plainly  indicate  that  they 
regard  it  necessary  to  watch,  and  that  they  have 
no  confidence  beyond  their  personal  vision.  This 
is  an  error  that  operates  unfavorably  with  men 
who  know  that  it  is  indispensable  to  trust  them. 
Honest  men  will  not  object  to  any  proper  scrutiny, 
and  a  discreet  watchfulness  may  be  maintained  in 
consistency  with  a  liberal  confidence ;  whereas,  if 
this  necessary  trust  is  coupled  with  manifest  sus- 
picion, it  tends  to  repress  the  laudable  ambition  of 
honest  men,  and  to  destroy  the  interest  they  would 
otherwise  exercise  for  the  prosperity  of  the  institution. 
It  must  be  confessed,  that  a  large  proportion  of 
the  men  who  seek  and  obtain  employment  on  rail- 
ways, are  deficient  in  those  qualifications  that  are 


256  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

necessary  to  secure  an  intelligent  and  faithful  dis- 
charge of  their  duties;  and  in  his  selections,  a 
superintendent  is  liable  to  be  more  or  less  deceived. 
But,  notwithstanding  this  difficulty,  there  are  many 
capable  and  faithful  men  to  be  had,  and  often  may 
be  selected  with  little  doubt ;  and  if  he  exercise  a 
discreet  diligence,  in  removing  the  deficient,  and 
promoting  from  lower  ranks  of  the  service  those 
more  faithful,  who  may  have  developed  their 
capacity  and  fitness,  by  filling  well  the  duties  of  an 
inferior  rank,  he  will  eventually  secure,  what  is  of 
great  importance  to  the  proprietary  interest,  a  body 
of  reliable  men  to  fill  all  places  of  trust.  To  see 
the  proper  bearing  of  this  duty,  and  be  able  to 
judge  well  of  the  fitness  of  men  for  the  various 
positions  they  are  to  occupy,  is  the  high  qualifica- 
tion of  a  superintendent ;  and  without  great  tact  in 
this  branch  of  his  duty,  he  will  never  succeed,  no 
matter  what  personal  capacity  and  vigilant  in- 
dustry he  may  exercise.  I  am  well  aware  this  is  a 
difficult  duty,  and  one  in  which  few  men  succeed 
well ;  but  in  order  to  attain  that  success,  the  super- 
intendent must  have  a  single  eye  to  the  interests  of 
the  institution.  He  must  be  free  from  that  vanity, 
that  lifts  him  above  the  work  he  has  in  charge.  He 
must  know  how  to  treat  men  who  are  worthy  of 
his  confidence,  and  not  disgust  them  with  supercili- 


OPKRATTNO — SUPERINTENDENT.         257 

ousness — but  be  frank,  candid,  upright  and  respect- 
ful to  his  subordinates,  that  they  may  feel  that  he 
considers  them  men.  He  must  discard  favoritism, 
especially  toward  family  friends,  which  is  a  bane- 
ful influence,  producing  dissatisfaction  and  the 
most  serious  evil  to  discipline,  and  consequently  to 
the  interest  of  the  proprietors.  He  must,  by  his 
proceedings,  encourage  confidence  in  his  firmness 
and  discretion,  to  advance,  as  opportunity  may 
arise,  those  in  the  service  of  the  railway  whose 
tried  conduct  and  capacity  may  merit  it.  Is  this 
too  exacting?  I  think  not.  The  position  is  evi- 
dently one  of  trust,  in  which  trust  must  be  trans- 
mitted to  others,  under  circumstances  involving 
important  interests,  and  if  the  head  of  this  depart- 
ment is  deficient  in  these  necessary  qualifications, 
matters  must  go  on  more  or  less  imperfectly,  and 
to  this  extent  the  proprietors  must  bear  the  loss. 

It  will  be  seen  by  the  preceding  remarks,  that 
the  duties  of  the  superintendent  are  of  a  highly 
responsible  character — surrounded  with  cares  and 
difficulties  that  will  demand  an  upright  mind — a 
clear  head — unceasing  vigilance,  and  business  qua- 
lifications of  a  comprehensive  order.  Upon  his 
ability  and  fidelity  the  proprietors  must  materially, 
if  not  mainly,  depend,  for  an  efficient  and  economi- 
cal administration  of  affairs. 


258  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 


CHAPTEE   XXIII. 

OPERATING SUPPLIES   OF   MATERIAL. 

THE  supplies  are  a  large  source  of  expenditure  in 
the  operating  business  of  a  railway.  The  work 
cannot  be  long  in  operation  before  rails,  chairs, 
spike  and  sleepers  will  be  wanted  for  the  main- 
tenance of  the  track.  The  repair  shops  will  require 
iron,  steel,  copper,  wheels,  axles,  tyre,  and  nume- 
rous other  articles,  mostly  hardware.  Oil  for  light 
and  the  lubrication  of  machinery,  cotton-waste,  and 
fuel  for  the  engines.  On  important  railways  it  is 
usual  to  establish  a  store,  with  a  storekeeper  in 
charge,  to  receive  and  distribute  supplies.  Sup- 
plies are  in  some  cases  purchased  by  the  store- 
keeper ;  in  others  a  purchasing  agent  is  charged 
with  this  duty.  In  either  case  the  party  purchasing 
should  not  pay,  but  certify  to  all  bills,  and  transmit 
them  to  the  paymaster,  who,  on  payment,  charges 
them  to  the  storekeeper.  In  order  to  understand 
what  supplies  are  necessary,  estimates  are  made 
under  the  direction  of  the  superintendent,  of  the 
kinds,  quality  and  quantity  of  articles  that  may  be 


OPERATING SUPPLIES   OF   MATERIAL.  259 

Wanted,  once  in  six  months,  and  oftener  if  neces- 
sary, for  the  guide  of  the  purchasing  agent.  It  is 
the  duty  of  the  storekeeper  to  receive  and  take  care 
of  the  goods,  and  to  deliver  them  as  wanted  to  the 
order  of  such  agents  as  may  be  authorized  to  draw 
supplies  from  the  store  ;  and  to  keep  the  accounts, 
so  as  to  show  the  consumption  by  the  different 
departments.  Notwithstanding  the  existence  of  a 
purchasing  agent,  it  will  be  necessary  for  the 
superintendent  to  give  so  much  attention  as  will 
secure  articles  best  adapted  to  the  uses  for  which 
they  are  wanted,  and  to  see  that  they  are  obtained 
on  the  most  favorable  terms  for  the  company ;  his 
attention  will  be  especially  required  in  procuring 
rails,  wheels,  axles,  tyre  and  oil.  Cross  sleepers, 
lumber  and  fuel  are  usually  procured  on  the  line  of 
the  railway,  by  agents  under  his  direction.  By 
whomever  purchased,  all  articles  should  go  on  the 
storekeeper's  books,  and  be  there  charged  to  the 
proper  account,  in  order  that  his  statistics  may 
show  a  complete  account  of  consumption  in  each 
department.  Whoever  be  the  purchasing  or  con- 
tracting agent,  he  should  be  under  the  direction  of 
the  superintendent,  who  should  cultivate  a  know- 
ledge of  the  quality  and  market,  that  will  enable 
him  to  judge  of  the  propriety  of  the  purchases 
made,  and  guard  against  a  quite  too  common  vice 


200  RAILWAY    PEOPEBTY. 

of  bribery  commissions  paid  to  the  agent,  to  secure 
a  high  price,  or  a  good  price  for  a  poor  article. 
Detection  in  so  gross  and  degrading  a  practice, 
should  be  followed  by  quick  retribution. 

It  rarely  happens  that  sufficient  care  is  exercised 
in  the  fuel  department.     As  yet,  wood  is  the  fuel 
generally  used  in  locomotives  of  this  country  ;  and 
much  care  is  required  in  its  inspection,  measure 
ment,  and  in  seasoning.     Careless  supervision  in 
the  former,  and  neglect  of  the  latter  will  be  produc- 
tive of  much  loss.     Unseasoned  wood  for  fuel,  or 
that  kept  on  hand  too  long  a  time,  is  unprofitable 
for  use.     "Wood  cut  in  the  winter  and  piled  in  the 
open  air,  will  generally  be  fit  for  use  the  August 
following,  and  should  then  be  housed,  and  will  be 
good  for  a  year  from  that  time,  when  the  succeed- 
ing lot  for  the  next  year  may  follow ;  but  if  left 
exposed  to  the  weather,  it  will  depreciate,  and  be- 
come less  valuable  according  to  the  time  of  expo- 
sure, and  if  it  cannot  be  housed,  no  more  than  one 
year's  supply   should  be   provided    at   one   time ; 
being  an  article  of  general  use,  it  is  often  exposed 
to  depredation,  or  misappropriation.     It  may  seem 
too  much  a  detail,  to  require  the  agent  who  has 
charge  of  the  wood  at  his  station  to  account  for  its 
use ;  but  it  is  the  only  way  to  maintain  a  check  on 
the  purchase  and  consumption.     To  do  this  some 


OPERATING SUPPLIES    OF    MATERIAL.  261 

method  must  be  adopted  to  measure  and  account 
for  the  quantity  taken  for  use  by  each  engine. 
This,  if  properly  arranged  for,  need  not  be  attended 
with  much  labor.  Let  there  be  racks  of  suitable 
size,  placed  on  hand-carts,  and  containing  a  mea- 
sured quantity,  say  one-sixth  to  one-fifth  of  a  cord, 
not  more  than  may  be  readily  moved  by  one  man 
on  a  platform.  These  racks  may  be  loaded  by  the 
wood-men,  and  arranged  in  convenient  position  to 
be  dumped  or  thrown  on  the  tender  of  the  engine  ; 
and  on  a  suitable  blank,  fill  out  the  number  of 
racks,  the  name  or  number  of  the  engine,  etc.,  and 
as  often  as  necessary  return  the  memoranda  to  the 
agent,  and  he  will  have  the  elements  for  a  daily  or 
weekly  report  of  the  quantity  used  by  each  engine. 
If  the  platform  be  raised  to  the  proper  elevation, 
these  racks,  being  on  carts,  may  be  dumped  into 
the  tender,  and  one  man  do  the  work  of  half  a 
dozen,  in  less  than  half  the  time  employed  by  the 
prevalent  custom  ;  it  would  require  the  wood  to  be 
elevated  a  trifle  higher  to  facilitate  dumping,  but 
this  could  be  done  by  the  wood-men,  while  waiting 
for  the  engine,  and  save  at  least  half  the  number 
required  to  be  on  hand  when  the  engine  arrives ; 
while  the  fuel,  on  arrival  of  the  engine,  would  be 
promptly  dumped  from  the  cart-racks,  saving 
more  than  half  the  delay  of  the  engine  in  receiving 


'262  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

fuel,  that  arises  from  throwing  up,  stick  by  stick  at  a 
time,  as  usually  practised.  If  coal  be  the  fuel 
used,  the  same  arrangement  may  be  modified  to 
its  requirements.  A  system  of  this  kind,  well  car- 
ried out,  would  not  only  afford  a  proper  check  on 
the  purchase  and  consumption  of  fuel,  but  also  a 
complete  basis  to  show  the  fuel  of  each  engine ;  an 
item  of  information  well  worth  all  the  care  required 
tu  procure  it.  It  would  only  be  carrying  out  for 
fuel  the  same  principle  of  check,  that  has  been 
adopted  in  the  consumption  of  oil  for  each  engine. 
It  will  be  perceived,  that  this  course  would  afford 
means  to  determine  separately,  the  consumption  of 
fuel  for  the  passenger  and  freight  traffic,  which  is 
important  to  the  proper  understanding  of  the  ex- 
pense of  each. 


OFKRATING — RECEIPTS. 


CHAPTEK   XXIY. 

OPER AT  ING BECE  IPT  8. 

IN  addition  to  what  has  been  said  in  relation  to 
receipts  from  passengers  and  freight,  it  may  be 
remarked  :  that  in  addition  to  receipts  by  conduc- 
tors (which  should  be  a  small  proportion  at  most) 
and  the  collections  made  by  connecting  railways, 
the  station  agents  will  be  the  principal  receivers  of 
the  dues  of  the  company.  At  important  stations, 
there  will  be  required,  a  passenger  and  a  freight 
agent;  each  of  these  will  make  his  report  to  the 
principal  office:  at  small  stations,  one  agent  is 
charged  with  all  the  duties,  administrative  and 
fiscal.  All  agents  charged  with  fiscal  duties  should 
report  daily,  and  with  reports,  send  in  their  funds 
to  the  Cashier  (Treasurer  or  the  fiscal  officer  who 
may  act  as  such).  The  report  goes  to  the  Auditor, 
from  the  station  agent,  and  the  Cashier  reports  to 
the  Auditor  the  amount  of  cash  received,  who 
thereupon  charges  the  Cashier  with  the  funds,  and 
gives  the  station  agent  credit  for  the  remittance. 
This  method  places  on  the  books  of  the  Auditor  the 


RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

fiscal  affairs  of  the  agents  of  all  classes,  who  are 
authorized  to  make  collections  for  the  railway ;  con- 
sequently the  Auditor  is  a  check  on  all  accounts, 
and  his  report  to  the  President,  or  financial  officer 
of  the  company,  shows  to  the  board  of  Directors 
the  state  of  their  finances.  This  department  of 
business  should  be  rigidly  conducted,  so  that  a 
strict  accountability  may  be  maintained,  and  funds 
not  be  allowed  to  accumulate  in  the  hands  of 
agents ;  and  that  the  Board  may,  at  frequent  inter- 
vals, understand  the  condition  of  their  finances. 

In  addition  to  dues  received  from  the  traffic  of 
the  railway,  there  will  grow  up  credits  from  the 
sale  of  old  materials,  of  considerable  importance. 
A  practice  to  some  extent  has  prevailed  of  allowing 
certain  agents  to  exchange  these,  or  sell  them  to 
manufacturers,  in  part  payment  for  new  goods. 
This  is  not  well,  as  it  tends  to  confuse  accounts, 
and  often  to  embarrass  the  examination  of  vouchers. 
The  proper,  and  as  I  think  the  obvious,  course  to 
secure  a  correct  administration,  is  to  make  it  the 
duty  of  some  agent  to  see  to  the  collection  and  sale 
of  all  old  materials,  who  should  remit  to  the  Cash- 
ier all  funds  received  for  the  same,  and  make  report 
to  the  Auditor  in  the  same  manner  as  in  the  case 
of  dues  from  traffic.  The  old  rails  may  be  an 
exception,  as  these  materials  go  into  the  re-manu- 


OPERATING RECEIPTS.  265 

facture,  and  the  same  weight  of  new  rails  is 
returned,  at  a  specific  price  for  the  re-manufacture, 
including  the  new  material  that  must  be  put  in,  to 
supply  waste  and  improve  the  quality ;  and  it  is 
only  necessary  for  the  Superintendent  to  collect 
and  take  the  weight  of  old  rails,  and  the  bills  for 
the  re-manufacture,  and  perhaps  transportation,  will 
be  simple  vouchers,  and  charge  them  directly  to 
the  repairs  of  track,  the  old  material  being  still  in 

tiie  track  in  the  shape  of  new  rails. 
12 


266  RAILWAY   PROPERTY. 


CHAPTER  XXY. 

OPERATING DISBURSEMENTS. 

THE  disbursements  for  the  operating  "business  of 
a  railway,  include  payments  to  the  officers,  agents, 
artisans,  laborers  and  numerous  bills  for  supplies, 
taxes,  damages  and  sundry  other  items,  thr»,1  will 
involve  expense. 

The  agents  in  the  several  departments  keep  check 
or  time  rolls  of  the  men  under  their  respective 
charges,  on  which  it  is  their  duty  to  record  daily 
the  wo.rk  done.  At  the  end  of  each  month  these 
time  rolls  are  reported  over  the  certificate  of  the 
agent  to  the  Superintendent,  whose  duty  it  is  to 
examine  the  same,  and  from  them  cause  pay  rolls 
for  the  month  to  be  made  out,  which  should  be  cer- 
tified by  him.  In  the  same  manner  all  bills  that 
may  be  made  by  authorized  agents,  are  certified  by 
such  agents,  and  submitted  to  the  Superintendent, 
who  examines  and  so  far  as  he  judges  them  correct, 
approves  them  by  attaching  his  signature.  If  bills 
or  claims  occur,  out  of  the  regular  course  of  busi- 
ness, the  Superintendent  examines,  and  so  far  as  he 


OPERATING — DISBURSEMENTS.  267 

deems  just  and  proper,  puts  them  in  form  and 
approves  as  in  other  cases.  This  latter  class  is 
mostly  for  damages,  taxes,  and  incidental  expenses, 
and  has  no  certificate  from  a  subordinate  agent, 
and  depends  wholly  on  the  approval  of  the  Superin- 
dent.  It  must  be  apparent,  that  on  railways  of 
considerable  extent,  having  a  large  traffic,  the  Su- 
perintendent can  know  but  very  little  of  the  accur- 
acy of  detail  in  the  monthly  time  rolls  and  bills 
that  must  be  submitted  for  his  approval — still  it  is 
necessary  that  they  should  have  his  sanction,  as  on 
him  rests  the  responsibility  of  the  expenditure,  and 
he  must  depend  on  the  fidelity  of  the  agents,  and 
his  general  knowledge  of  the  business  of  the  rail- 
way— his  familiarity  with  the  work  in  progress, 
with  prices  of  labor  and  materials,  and  the  current 
wants  of  the  several  departments,  to  guide  him  in 
the  discharge  of  this  duty.  It  will  be  incumbent 
on  him  to  take  the  precaution  of  giving  to  all  agents 
who  may  be  authorized  to  incur  bills,  and  especially 
the  purchasing  agent,  such  instructions  as  to  rates, 
quality  and  kind  of  materials  wanted,  as  will  guard 
as  far  as  practicable  against  improper  bills,  and 
especially  against  a  practice  that  has,  as  before 
observed,  too  often  prevailed,  of  agents  taking  a 
commission  on  purchases,  and  also  guard  against 
an  abuse  arising  from  influential  employees  recom- 


268  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

mending  certain  firms,  or  certain  articles  used,  and 
from  obtaining  patents  for  others ;  certainly  a  most 
pernicious  and  degrading  practice,  from  which  it  is 
supposed  even  railway  directors  are  not  always 
wholly  exempt. 

After  the  rolls  and  bills  are  approved  by  the 
Superintendent,  they  are  handed  over  to  the  Audi- 
tor, who  examines  and  corrects  any  clerical  errors, 
and  if  there  is  anything  inconsistent  with  the  rules 
of  the  company,  or  in  any  respect  in  his  judgment 
improper,  he  suspends  them  until  satisfactorily  ex- 
plained, and  then  enters  the  abstracts  on  his  books, 
after  which  he  hands  them  over  to  the  Paymaster, 
with  a  draft  on  the  Cashier  for  funds  to  pay  the 
same.  When  paid,  the  Paymaster  returns  the  ab- 
stracts and  vouchers  to  the  Auditor,  who  credits  the 
account  of  the  Paymaster  for  the  amount  paid.  In 
some  cases  the  Superintendent  hands  the  rolls  and 
bills  to  a  Committee  of  the  Board  of  Directors,, 
whose  approval  is  necessary  before  payment.  But 
this  is  inconvenient  and  attended  with  delay,  espe- 
cially if  the  officer  of  the  board  is  not  on  the  line 
of  the  railway,  and  in  my  judgment  is  not  as  well, 
for  no  man  is  so  well  situated  to  understand  the 
whole  subject  as  the  Auditor,  who  keeps  the  books 
and  readily  acquires  a  better  knowledge  and  under- 
standing of  the  details  of  expenditure  and  the 


OPERATING DISBURSEMENTS.  269 

wants  of  this  department  than  any  committee  would 
be  likely  to  possess.  The  Auditor  should  be  a  man 
of  capacity,  firmness  and  fidelity,  and  with  proper 
rules,  established  by  the  Board  of  Directors,  there 
would  be  small  probability  of  errors.  This  course 
would  not  supersede  an  examination  by  a  commit- 
tee of  the  Board,  who  should  occasionally  take  up 
and  investigate  these  and  all  other  fiscal  affairs  of 
the  institution,  and  so  far  as  this  relates  to  the  ope- 
rating department,  the  office  of  the  Auditor  will 
furnish  the  books  and  vouchers,  and  such  incidental 
aid  as  a  committee  may  require.  On  this  point  it 
is  to  be  kept  in  view,  that  committees  are  usually 
composed  of  members  of  the  Board,  who  have 
their  own  occupations,  and  can  rarely  give  the  time 
required  for  a  thorough  examination.  By  the  sys- 
tem here  recommended,  the  Auditor  holds  no  funds ; 
but  he  has  the  entire  books  and  accounts,  by  which 
are  established  complete  checks  on  all  the  fiscal 
officers  engaged  in  this  department,  and  no  great 
wrong  can  occur  without  collusion.  An  intel- 
ligent board  of  directors  will  see  the  importance 
of  selecting  a  man  for  Auditor  to  whom,  from  his 
character  for  capacity,  firmness  and  fidelity  the 
interests  of  the  proprietors  may  be  safely  com- 
mitted. 

A   rule  of   the   company  should  establish    the 


270  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

principle,  that  in  all  examination  of  bills,  full  de- 
tail of  items,  with  price  and  quantity,  should  be 
presented.  A  practice  has  more  or  less  prevailed 
on  some  railways,  of  charging  in  lump  several 
items,  and  especially  in  matters  of  personal  and 
incidental  expenses.  This  is  very  liable  to  abuse, 
and  is  wholly  inconsistent  with  the  systematic  tho- 
roughness of  business  that  should  be  required  for 
railway  management,  and  should  not  be  tolerated. 
Excuses  are  often  made  for  the  practice,  but  they 
should  be  wholly  discarded. 


OPERATING STATISTICS.  271 


CHAPTEK  XXVI. 

OPERATING STATISTICS. 

IN  most  of  the  States,  annual  reports  are  required 
from  each  railway  within  their  limits,  making  it 
imperative  on  the  officers  to  present  nearly  all  the 
statistical  information  that  is  wanted ;  but  this  is 
not  always  complied  with  with  that  exactness  of 
fact  and  detail  that  is  designed,  and,  if  up  to  the 
legal  requirement,  does  not  secure  all  the  informa- 
tion it  is  desirable  a  railway  company  should  have. 
It  is  often  regarded  an  onerous  and  unnecessary 
duty,  and  therefore  not  always  fully  carried  out,  so 
as  to  meet  either  the  intention  of  the  Legislature 
or  the  true  interest  of  the  railway  companies.  It 
must  be  admitted,  however,  that  a  large  amount  of 
useful  information  is  obtained  from  these  annual 
reports,  many  of  which  possess  a  considerable  full- 
ness of  detail. 

The  statistics  most  important  for  a  railway  com- 
pany, are  those  that  show  the  working  expenses  in 
each  department,  and  the  cost  of  every  kind  of 
traffic.  A  railway  without  this  information,  may 


272  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

carry  on  a  branch  of  traffic  that  is  unprofitable,  or 
which  does  not  afford  the  remuneration  that  should 
be  derived  from  it.  The  indiscriminate  mixture  of 
this  with  the  profitable  part,  both  in  relation  to  ex- 
penses and  rates,  prevents  a  clear  understanding  of 
the  matter,  and  so  long  as  the  business  is  transacted 
on  general  impressions,  this  evil  will  exist  to  a  greater 
or  less  degree,  according  to  the  multiplicity  of  the 
items  of  traffic.  It  is  more  especially  important 
for  so  much  of  the  traffic  as  may  be  affected  by 
rival  lines,  in  which  case  it  should  be  known  what 
rates  will  pay,  at  least  something  over  expenses.  A 
zeal  for  business  is  always  commendable,  but  it 
should  never  go  so  far  as  to  pursue  it  at  a  loss.  It 
is  also  necessary,  in  order  to  judge  how  far  the  rail- 
way may  enter  on  sources  of  undeveloped  traffic, 
that  have  been  dormant  from  the  want  of  accurate 
information. 

To  collect  and  arrange  the  statistics  of  a  railway 
will  add  to  the  expense  of  clerk-hire ;  a  small  mat- 
ter, when  compared  to  the  benefits  that  may  be 
derived  from  reliable  information,  to  be  used  in 
economizing  expenses,  and  giving  the  best  possible 
direction  to  the  administration  of  the  traffic.  But 
this  is  not  all  the  benefit  of  thorough  statistics.  It 
gives  order,  efficiency,  and  economy  in  the  current 
transactions  of  business,  by  the  checks  incidental  to 


OPERATING STATISTICS.  273 

the  system,  and  is  in  this  respect,  worth  all  the 
extra  cost. 

A  very  important  feature  in  the  statistics  of  a  rail- 
way is,  the  separation  of  the  expenses  of  the  passen- 
ger and  freight  departments.  This  cannot,  in  all 
respects,  be  exact.  The  general  officers  are  the 
same  individuals  in  both  departments ;  the  agents 
at  small  stations  attend  to  the  business  of  both. 
The  maintenance  of  track  is  also  common  to  both 
branches.  For  these  expenses  some  method  of 
estimate  must  be  adopted,  and  though  not  exact,  I 
know  of  none  better  than  the  mileage  of  trains. 
The  repairs  of  engines,  cars,  and  coaches  of  each? 
may  be  kept  separate,  thougli  there  is  often  a  mix- 
ture of  service  by  engines  in  both  departments, 
which  on  unimportant  railways  of  small  traffic 
may  be  most  convenient ;  but  it  cannot  be  recom- 
mended that  important  railways  should  make  this 
indiscriminate  service  of  engines.  There  is  no 
difficulty  in  appropriating  engines  according  to 
their  power  to  the  various  services ;  the  engines 
for  light  way  trains  should  be  exclusively  devoted 
to  such  trains ;  they  are  not  sufficient  for  express 
trains,  and  to  see  a  heavy  engine  hauling  a  way 
train  of  one  or  two  coaches,  half  filled,  indicates 
great  want  of  skill  and  economy.  The  engines 
designed  for  express  trains  must  be  more  powerful, 
12* 


274  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

according  to  the  weight  of  trains,  and  will  require 
a  greater  expense  for  repairs  than  those  for  low  or 
medium  speed — the  same  may  be  said  of  coaches, 
which  must  be  stronger  built,  and  of  consequence 
of  greater  weight  and  subject  to  greater  expense 
for  repairing  when  used  for  high,  than  for  low 
speed ;  thus  so  far  as  the  question  of  separation  of 
expenses  is  affected  by  the  engines  and  coaches,  it 
is  practicable  to  ascertain  it;  and  it  is  necessary  to 
an  intelligent  administration  of  business,  to  know 
what  these  differences  are.  They  can  only  be 
known  by  a  strict  attention  to  the  statistics  of  ex^ 
pense.  It  is  not  to  be  supposed  one  set  of  coaches 
would  be  made  for  low  speed  and  another  for  high 
speed,  on  the  same  railway,  but  that  the  new  and 
strong  coaches  would  be  taken  for  the  express 
trains,  and  those  impaired  by  age  and  use,  would 
be  taken  for  the  way,  or  low-speed  trains ;  a  course 
that  would  be  dictated  by  ordinary  business  pru- 
dence. 

As  before  observed,  there  are  items  that  belong 
to  this  question,  that  can  only  be  obtained  by  esti- 
mates— as  the  maintenance  of  track,  subject  to  the 
daily  use  of  trains  of  all  classes.  The  best  way  to 
reach  this  item  is,  by  a  strict  attention  to  the  com- 
parative influence  of  speed  on  the  maintenance  of 
engines  and  coaches ;  as  the  ratio  of  these  will  not 


OPERATING STATISTICS.  275 

differ  materially  from  the  influence  of  speed  on  the 
track.  Tlie  fuel  account  may  be  easily  kept  sepa- 
rate from  the  passenger  and  freight  traffic,  by 
adopting  a  system  of  accounts  to  show  the  quan- 
tity used  by  each  engine,  as  mentioned  under  the 
head  of  supplies. 

With  results  carefully  reduced  from  a  thorough, 
system  of  statistics,  the  Superintendent  will  have  a 
basis,  not  of  guess-work,  but  of  fact,  to  judge  of  the 
speed  he  should  adopt,  and  of  the  tariff  necessary 
for  a  high,  as  compared  with  that  sufficient  to  pay 
equally  well  at  a  low  speed.  He  would  be  able  to 
determine  on  all  questions  of  rivalry  with  other 
lines,  what  could  be  done  to  best  secure  the  inte- 
rest of  his  own  line. 

There  is  yet  wanting  much  of  that  thorough- 
ness, required  to  obtain  all  the  statistical  knowledge 
needful.  Profitable  and  unprofitable  traffic  is  in- 
discriminately thrown  together,  and  the  value  of 
the  aggregate  only  is  known,  while  the  relative 
value  of  the  parts  are  merely  guessed  at.  The 
same  may  be  more  emphatically  said  of  expenses. 
Now,  it  is  not  denied  that  much  useful  statistical 
information  is  obtained ;  but  the  fault  is,  in  not 
carrying  it  to  that  detail  which  is  necessary  to 
obtain  the  information  so  valuable  and  necessary 
to  the  economical  administration  of  business. 


276  .     RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

If  a  full  and  accurate  knowledge  of  the  expenses 
on  track  and  machinery,  and  of  the  extensive,  and 
in  a  great  measure  irresponsible,  outside  and  inside 
agencies  involved  in  rival  efforts  to  control  business 
— were  well  understood,  there  would  doubtless  be 
great  modification  in  the  operations  of  competing 
lines.  The  general  practice  on  American  railways 
has  been  to  charge  the  same  passenger  fare  on  fast 
as  on  slow  trains  ;  a  course  that  cannot  be  justified 
by  the  expenses,  and  must  rest  on  some  other 
basis :  this  is  mostly  competition,  and  the  only  one 
that  can  justify  it. 

There  is  a  general  opinion  among  railway  man- 
agers, that  high  speed  is  more  expensive  than  low, 
and  this  is  the  result  of  an  impression  derived  from 
the  fact,  that  increase  of  speed  has  been  attended 
with  increase  of  expenses;  but  the  information  is 
indefinite,  uncertain,  and  not  competent  to  meet  the 
necessities  of  the  question,  or  lay  the  foundation  of 
business  with  the  exactness  that  is  attainable,  and 
should  be  had  for  affairs  of  so  much  importance. 
Let  it  not  be  said  the  thing  is  impracticable ;  it 
only  requires  system  and  energy  to  secure  the  most 
useful  results  to  the  railway  interest,  and  must  be 
done  before  railway  management  can  be  said  to  be 
complete. 


OPERATING RUNNING    OF    TRAINS.  277 


CHAPTER  XXVH. 

OPERATING RUNNING   OF   TRAINS. 

THE  running  of  trains  must  depend  much  on  the 
weight  and  character  of  the  traffic  to  be  provided 
for.  It  is  necessarily  controlled  by  the  fact,  whether 
*Jie  railway  has  a  single  or  double  track.  In  the 
latter  case,  the  arrangement  of  time  tables  is  more 
simple  than  in  the  former,  and  a  double  track  will 
of  course  accommodate  a  much  larger  traffic,  and 
the  traffic  may  be  done  at  a  lower  rate  of  expense. 
The  greater  portion  of  the  railways  in  this  country 
have  only  a  single  track,  and  on  many  of  these 
there  is  quite  an  important  traffic.  It  is  obvious 
that  regularity  is  highly  important,  in  fact  indispen- 
sable, especially  on  a  single  track,  as  delay  in  one 
train  causes  delay  in  several  others,  and  is  particu- 
larly injurious  to  freight  trains,  which  are  required 
to  give  the  preference  to  all  passenger  trains.  It  is 
therefore  obvious  that  whatever  tends  to  delay,  and 
thereby  cause  irregularity,  should  be  carefully  guard- 
ed against,  and  the  most  energetic  means  used  in 
case  of  accident,  to  remove  the  impediment  to  other 


278  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

trains.  In  passenger  trains,  high  speed  is  more 
likely  to  cause  accidents  than  low  speed,  and  great 
care  should  be  used  to  avoid  unnecessary  hazard 
from  this  source.  High  speed  is  also  more  expen- 
sive in  other  respects,  as  has  been  remarked  in  rela- 
tion to  track  and  machinery,  to  which  may  be 
added  the  increased  cost  of  fuel.  Not  only  are 
accidents  more  likely  to  occur  under  high  speed, 
but  the  injury  will  be  much  more  severe  than  when 
they  occur  on  trains  at  low  speed. 

The  question  to  be  considered  is,  what  rate  of 
speed  is  necessary  to  secure  the  traffic  ?  Within 
reasonable  limits,  it  may  be  regarded  true,  that  the 
interest  of  the  proprietors  will  be  best  promoted 
by  establishing  the  lowest  rate  of  speed.  There  is 
doubtless  some  traffic  secured  by  high  speed  that 
would  be  lost  on  a  low  speed,  and  the  first  question 
is,  will  that  be  sufficient  to  defray  the  extra  ex- 
pense ?  Aside  from  the  rivalry  of  competing  lines, 
this  question  could  be  easily  settled.  Any  speed 
over  twenty-five  miles  per  hour  for  express  trains, 
may  generally  be  regarded  as  of  doubtful  expedi- 
ency, if  the  traffic  is  not  affected  by  competition. 
An  express  train  of  this  speed,  making  few  stops, 
and  those-  mostly,  for  fuel  and  water,  would  not 
require  a  high  or  very  expensive  running  time ;  it 
being  premised  that  the  arrangements  for  taking  on 


OPERATING RUNNING    OF   TRAINS.  279 

supplies  of  fuel  and  water  admitted  promptness  in 
this  respect,  and  no  unnecessary  time  is  consumed 
at  stations.  Such  an  express  would  have  an  impor- 
tant advantage  in  regularity  over  a  higher  rate  of 
speed,  and  rarely  miss  its  connections  with  other 
lines ;  which  would  arise  from  two  causes :  first, 
its  less  exposure  to  accidental  delays,  and  second, 
that  in  case  of  delay  it  would  be  more  likely  to 
recover  the  loss  on  its  moderate  time.  Hence  it 
often  occurs  that  a  journey  of  five  hundred  01 
one  thousand  miles  is  made  in  less  time  by  the 
moderate  express  than  by  the  extra  express  ;  arising 
from  delays  occasioned  by  lying  over  at  points 
where  connection  is  lost  with  the  next  link  in 
the  line. 

It  will  be  contended  that  the  public  would  not 
be  satisfied  with  slow  trains;  and  it  is  admitted 
some  attention  is  due  to  this  consideration ;  but  the 
first  party  in  interest  is  the  Proprietor,  who  has 
furnished  the  means  to  construct  the  railway,  and 
is  responsible  for  the  conduct  of  the  traffic.  Not 
only  does  he  bear  the  original  burden  of  the  under- 
taking, and  the  current  expense  of  high  speed,  but 
if  life  or  limb  is  damaged,  a  much  more  likely 
occurrence  at  high  speed,  he  must  pay.  It  cannot 
be  denied  that  the  proprietor  must  be  indemnified, 
and  if  it  be  expedient  to  maintain  the  high  or  extra 


280  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

speed,  the  tariff  rate  should  be  in  proportion.  It 
is  the  practice  in  England  to  charge  a  high  rate  foi 
the  extra  express  trains,  and  still  it  is  contended,  J 
think  with  propriety,  by  English  writers,  that  ever 
they  do  not  make  sufficient  difference. 

It  is  certainly  a  very  pleasant  thing  to  travel 
thirty  miles  per  hour  including  stops,  on  a  well 
managed  railway,  provided  no  apprehension  of 
danger  is  felt;  and  no  doubt  most  people  would 
prefer  it  to  a  train  of  more  safety  at  twenty-five 
miles  per  hour.  But  if  a  higher  rate,  corresponding 
to  the  increased  expense  was  charged,  it  would  be 
found  that  most  travellers  would  be  satisfied  with 
the  twenty-five  mile  express.  In  regard  to  speed 
there  is  one  thing  that  may  be  controlled  by  the 
Superintendent,  namely,  that  no  unnecessary  time 
be  consumed  by  stops  at  stations.  The  time  wasted 
at  stations  must  be  made  up  by  extra  speed  between 
them  ;  and  a  great  deficiency  of  promptness  in  this 
duty  may  often  be  observed,  and  a  striking  differ- 
ence on  different  railways.  In  one  case  the  passen- 
gers are  duly  notified,  and  ready  to  leave  the  coach 
the  moment  the  train  stops ;  in  the  other,  they 
receive  no  notice  until  it  actually  comes  to  a  stand, 
and  then  it  often  happens  that  the  name  of  the  sta- 
tion is  announced  in  such  a  confused,  inarticulate 
sound  as  to  leave  the  passengers  in  doubt,  if  not 


OPERATING RUNNING    OF   TRAINS.  281 

ntter  uncertainty,  as  to  what  station  they  have 
arrived  at.  The  time  required  depends  on  the  num- 
ber of  passengers  to  be  discharged  and  received, 
and  this  is  easily  understood.  Passengers  are  gene- 
rally ready  to  do  their  part,  and  if  it  is  understood 
there  will  be  promptness  on  the  part  of  the  conduc- 
tor, they  will  move  at  the  earliest  moment  in  get- 
ting off  or  on  the  train.  If  fuel  and  water  are  to  be 
taken  on,  there  will  be  necessity  for  a  longer  stop ; 
but  even  this  is  often  longer  than  necessary,  and 
sometimes  appears  lengthened  out  to  give  time  for 
refreshments  that  are  quite  unnecessary.  Certain 
stops  should  be  arranged  to  give  time  for  refresh- 
ments ;  but  these  need  not  occur  oftener  than  once 
in  one  hundred  and  fifty  or  two  hundred  miles,  on 
express  trains. 

It  is  often  observed  that  way  trains,  which  are 
understood  to  be  trains  that  stop  at  all  stations,  are 
run  at  as  high  speed  between  stations  as  express 
trains.  This  can  only  arise  from  unnecessary  waste 
of  time  at  the  stations,  or  from  too  high  a  time- 
table speed  for  such  trains,  which  in  general  should 
not  be  greater  than  eighteen  miles  per  hour,  inclu- 
ding stops,  and  if  the  latter  be  promptly  made,  the 
running  speed  will  not  be  great.  The  time  lost  in 
stops  is  not  simply  the  delay  at  the  station ;  but 
to  this  must  be  added  that  required  in  bringing 


282  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

down  and  raising  the  speed  from  and  to  the  run- 
ning rate  of  time.  This  requires  good  practice. cm 
the  part  of  the  engine  driver  and  the  brakeman. 
The  steam  should  not  be  kept  on  so  long  as  to 
require  the  brake  to  stop  the  rolling  and  cause  a 
sliding  motion  to  the  wheels.  A  light  train  is  more 
easily  stopped  than  a  heavy  one,  and  as  way  trains 
are  not  usually  as  heavy,  and  do  not  require  as 
heavy  engines,  nor  as  high  speed,  they  may  be 
brought  to  a  stand  more  easily  than  express  trains. 
On  railways  having  a  large  proportion  of  heavy 
express  trains,  there  will  be  an  object  of  some  con- 
venience in  having  all  the  coaches  of  the  same  size 
for  both  way  and  express  trains ;  but  the  engines 
for  way  trains  may  be  lighter  than  those  adapted 
to  express  trains.  To  see,  as  may  often  be  seen,  a 
way  train  with  one  or  two  coaches,  containing 
twenty  or  thirty  passengers,  and  rarely  exceeding 
sixty,  drawn  by  an  express  engine  with  five  and  a 
half  to  six  feet  drivers,  and  weighing  from  twenty- 
two  to  twenty-five  tons,  is  certainly  no  credit  to  the 
capacity  of  the  management.  On  a  railway  having 
a  comparatively  small  amount  of  light  traffic,  or 
such  as  is  best  done  by  small  trains,  the  practice 
here  recommended  is  of  less  importance.  If,  on  the 
other  hand,  there  is  a  large  amount  of  the  total 
passenger  traffic  that  is  light,  then  it  is  especially 


OPERATING RUNNING   OP   TRAJNS.  283 

important  that  not  only  the  engines,  but  the  coaches 
should  be  lighter  than  those  required  for  a  heavy 
traffic. 

There  are  railways  that  do  a  large  passenger 
business,  a  very  considerable  portion  of  which  is 
properly  a  light-train  business,  and  should  be  done 
with  machinery  adapted  to  it,  and  with'  proper 
arrangements  of  trains  and  machinery.  Much  of 
the  local  traffic  would  be  better  accommodated, 
and  as  a  consequence  better  cultivated  and  more 
economically  done,  than  by  the  more  expensive 
mode  of  doing  a  large  portion  of  it  on  express 
trains.  There  are  two  classes  of  railways,  on  which 
this  is  very  important :  First,  those  that  enter  large 
cities,  passing  through  a  densely-settled  country, 
having  a  large  local  traffic  in  passengers,  that 
require,  not  heavy,  but  frequent  trains.  It  is  a 
great  error  to  do  this  business  by  heavy,  or  any 
express  train,  especially  if  the  express  is  run  in 
competition  with  other  lines.  The  objection  that 
will  be  urged,  namely,  that  business  will  be  con- 
fused by  this  course,  and  you  must  not  have  so 
much  variety  in  machinery,  is  nothing  more  than  a 
confession  of  incapacity  for  proper  administration, 
and  should  not  be  regarded,  if  it  be  intended  to 
maintain  a  thorough  and  economical  management. 
The  second  case  is,  a  railway  having  a  light  aggre- 


284:  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

gate  traffic,  not  sufficient  to  support  frequent 
trains,  even  if  they  be  light.  Here,  in  the  absence 
of  a  heavy  traffic,  there  is  small  hope  of  meeting 
expenses,  if  heavy  machinery  is  used.  It  may  be 
generally  noticed  that  railways  of  this  class  use 
the  same,  or  nearly  the  same  character  of  ma- 
chinery, as  those  doing  double,  or  quadruple  traffic  ; 
a  practice  ruinous  to  the  proprietors,  and  unless 
changed,  must  lead  in  some  cases  to  the  abandon- 
ment of  the  railway  as  a  means  of  transport.  The 
traffic  may  carry  them  along  and  pay  current  ex- 
penses until  the  renewal  of  rails  and  machinery 
becomes  necessary,  when  it  will  appear  that  there 
are  no  funds  for  such  a  purpose,  and  the  railway 
must  be  abandoned,  the  proprietors  making  the 
most  they  may  out  of  the  old  rails  and  machinery, 
and  the  district  return  to  the  old  method  of  trans- 
port, no  doubt,  much  to  the  disadvantage  of  all 
parties  in  interest. 

In  arranging  express  trains,  especially  on  a  rail- 
way of  large  traffic,  much  judgment  is  requiied  in 
determining  the  rate  of  speed.  It  is  not  always 
necessary  to  run  all  trains  alike  fast.  So  far  as 
they  may  be  induced  by  competition,  the  speed  of 
some  will  probably  be  higher  than  others,  and  they 
should  have  few  stops,  so  as  to  give  all  time  prac- 
ticable to  the  track,  and  thus  keep  the  running 


OPERATING RUNNING    OF    TRAINS.  285 

speed  as  low  as  will  make  the  time  required  by  the 
competition,  and  best  secure  the  object  sought. 
Other  express  trains  should  have  more  time,  and 
make  stops  at  the  more  important  way  stations, 
when  the  business  may  justify  such  extent  of  ac- 
commodation, leaving  the  minor  stations  to  be  pro- 
vided for  by  the  way  trains.  This  will  be  likely  to 
excite  in  the  latter  case  some  jealousy,  of  the  influ- 
ence of  which  the  Superintendent  must  judge,  as 
the  railway  cannot  be  expected  to  provide  accom- 
modation, beyond  the  fair  profit  of  the  traffic. 

It  is  quite  proper  that  freight  trains  should  give 
the  right  of  track  to  passenger  trains,  and  in  case 
of  accidental  delays  of  the  latter,  this  is  sometimes 
quite  serious,  especially  on  single  track  railways, 
having  three  or  four  passenger  trains  each  way  daily. 
Of  course,  every  practicable  effort  should  be  made 
to  avoid  such  delays,  and  at  this  time,  on  well- 
managed  railways,  they  are  of  more  rare  occur- 
rence than  formerly.  Freight  trains  require  much 
judgment  in  their  arrangement,  from  the  fluctu- 
ations of  the  traffic,  and  will  require  modifications 
as  the  varying  seasons  of  business  occur.  Those 
established  for  daily  use  through  the  year,  should 
be  limited  to  the  number  that  may  be  required 
through  the  season  of  light  traffic;  aud  as  this  in- 
creases, extra  sections  of  trains  will  be  provided  for 


286  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

a  time,  and  as  it  further  increases,  it  may  be  expe 
dient  to  put  on  additional  regular  trains.  It  is 
very  material  to  the  economy  of  management,  that 
no  unnecessary  trains  be  run,  or  more  than  is  suf- 
ficient for  the  traffic  at  the  time.  The  passenger 
train  must  be  run  daily,  for  though  at  times  it  may 
have  a  light  business,  it  can  only  change  by  a  new 
time-table,  dispensing  with  a  portion  of  the  trains, 
which  is  not  usually  done  oftener  than  twice  in  a 
year ;  but  freight  is  more  easily  managed  in  this 
respect,  and  no  more  trains  should  be  run  than 
necessary  to  provide  for  it.  This  will  produce 
some  irregularity  in  the  employment  of  train  men, 
and  some  other  work  or  occupation  must  at  times 
be  provided  for  them.  So  far  as  they  are  mecha- 
nics, this  may  be  found  in  the  repair  shops,  and 
others  should  be  employed  at  such  work  as  they 
can  do,  or  dismissed  for  the  time.  But  it  will 
rarely  happen  that  work  cannot  be  found  for  the 
useful  employment  of  laborers.  Some  railway 
managers  contend  this  cannot  be  done,  and  that 
train  men  must  be  kept  constantly  under  employ- 
ment, equal  to  any  emergency  of  business,  which  1 
regard  unsound  and  inconsistent  with  proper  eco- 
nomy. If  due  attention  is  paid  to  the  wants  of  a 
railway,  useful  employment  may  generally  be 
found  for  all  train-men,  from  trains  temporarily 


OPERATING — RUNNING    OF    TRAINS.  287 

suspended.  At  such  times,  which  occur  after  a 
season  of  heavy  traffic,  the  machinery  will  require 
more  than  usual  attention,  and  should  be  put  in 
good  order,  so  as  to  be  in  condition  to  meet  the  de- 
mands of  a  returning  pressure  in  the  traffic,  and  the 
mechanics  suspended  from  the  train  service,  may 
be  fully  employed  to  aid  this  work.  "When  the 
traffic  is  heavy,  the  machinery  is  kept  in  so  con- 
stant use,  that  only  temporary  repairs  can  well  be 
made,  leaving  the  more  important  work  to  be  done 
when  it  is  less  occupied,  and  just  when  the  me- 
chanics from  among  the  train  men  may  be  at 
liberty  to  go  to  the  shops. 

The  freight  trains  should  be  ready  to  start  on 
their  time  with  the  same  promptness  as  a  passenger 
train.  There  is  often  neglect  in  this  respect,  arising 
from  the  impression  that  it  is  less  important ;  but 
the  freight  should  be  as  punctual  on  time,  both  in 
leaving  the  terminus  and  from  way  stations,  as  a 
passenger  train.  This  is  quite  necessary  to  an  eco- 
nomical administration  of  the  freight  traffic,  and  to 
the  convenience  and  economy  of  the  work  of  repairs 
on  the  track,  and  the  wood  trains  transporting  fuel 
for  the  use  of  the  engines,  which  are  embarrassed 
and  delayed  by  the  untimely  freight  train. 

The  running  speed  of  freight  trains  should  not 
exceed  twelve  miles  per  hour,  except  for  freight 


288  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

that  can  pay  extra  for  greater  speed.  This  princi- 
ple is  not  sufficiently  regarded,  as  one  that  enters 
intimately  into  the  economy  of  railway  transport, 
and  will  be  likely  to  be  understood  only  by  a  closer 
supervision  of  all  that  affects  expense  than  lias 
hitherto  been  practised  on  most  railways.  Speed 
in  freight  transportation  requires  a  corresponding 
weight  and  power  of  engine,  or  the  load  must  be 
diminished  to  allow  the  speed ;  in  either  case  extra 
speed  will  involve  extra  expense.  Whatever  be 
the  speed  adopted,  the  load  of  the  freight  engine 
may  be  adapted  to  its  power ;  in  this  it  differs  from 
the  requirements  of  an  express  passenger  engine, 
in  which  the  load  cannot  so  readily  be  adapted  to 
its  power ;  and  hence  the  freight  engine  for  high 
or  low  speed  may  be  of  the  weight  and  power  that 
will  produce  the  best  economy  of  transport.  In 
arranging  the  time  for  a  freight  train,  provi- 
sion must  be  made  for  necessary  detention  at  the 
stations  for  letting  oif  or  taking  on  cars.  If  the 
train  is  properly  made  up,  the  station  service  may 
be  as  regularly  and  promptly  done  as  any  other ; 
the  station  agent  should  have  his  side  track  clear, 
in  order  to  remove  the  cars  to  be  left  at  his  station 
without  delay  ;  and  the  cars  to  be  put  on  should  be 
ready  and  in  position  for  prompt  attachment.  If, 
as  will  be  required  for  way  freight  at  small  stations, 


OPERATING RUNNING    OF   TRAINS.  289 

a  car  must  be  loaded  with  freight  to  be  deliveied 
at  several  stations,  and  of  course  unloaded  by  the 
discharge  of  parcels  for  each,  the  parcels  for  each 
station  should  be  loaded  in  the  order  of  the  stations, 
so  as  to  admit  of  prompt  discharge.  If  unnecessary 
time  is  taken  at  the  stations,  it  will  be  made  up,  if 
the  engine  has  power,  by  a  corresponding  increase 
of  speed  between  them,  and  this  will  be  easy  if 
there  happen  to  be  a  descending  grade,  and  it  is  no 
unusual  thing  for  time  to  be  wasted  by  idle  habits 
at  the  stations,  in  the  expectation  of  making  it  up 
by  increase  of  speed,  though  against  the  rules. 
This  is  an  evil  to  be  carefully  guarded  against ;  and 
attempts  have  been,  made,  requiring  the  station 
agent  to  report  the  time  of  the  arrival  and  depart- 
ure of  trains,  and  any  circumstances  of  unusual 
delay ;  but  unless  very  closely  looked  after,  the 
reporting  will  be  defective,  and  the  Superintendent 
left  in  ignorance  of  proceedings  in  this  respect.  It 
is  no  uncommon  thing  to  witness  heavy  freight 
trains  moving  under  a  time  table  of  twelve  to  four- 
teen miles,  but  actually  at  the  rate  of  thirty  miles 
per  hour,  thundering  along  the  rails  with  their 
heavy  cars  of  more  than  two  tons  on  a  wheel,  and 
these  resting  on  bits  ot  india-rubber  bouncers,  or 
short,  st eel  springs  of  substantial  rigidity.  Nor  is  it 
a  matter  of  rare  occurrence  that  such  things  hap- 

13 


290  RAILWAY   PROPERTY. 

pen,  and  go  seriously  to  add  to  the  expense  of 
repairs  on  track  and  machinery.  If  run  at  proper 
speed,  freight  engines  may  be  heavier  than  passen- 
ger engines,  and  be  no  more  injurious  to  the  track; 
they  should  have  low  drivers,  as  this  tends  to  restrict 
their  speed,  and  increase  their  power  of  traction. 

The  Superintendent  who  aims  to  effect  an  eco- 
nomical transport  of  freight,  will  find  much  to  de- 
mand his  attention  in  the  management  of  his  trains. 
He  must  study,  not  to  see  merely  how  large  a  train 
he  may  haul,  or  how  fast  he  can  run  it  with  one 
engine ;  but  how  small  a  sum  he  can  make  trans- 
port a  ton  of  freight.  When  this  last  proposition 
comes  to  be  well  studied,  machinery  will  be  better 
adapted  to  the  rail  and  the  traffic  the  road  accom- 
modates. 


OPERATING COMPETITION. 


CHAPTEK  XXVm. 

OPERATING COMPETITION. 

THE  competition  of  rival  lines  has  become  a 
matter  seriously  affecting  many  prominent  railways, 
and  has  led  to  many  convocations  of  railway  mana- 
gers, for  the  purpose  of  harmonizing  the  conflicting 
interests.  These  assemblies  have  produced  agree- 
ments as  to  running  trains  and  rates  of  tariff,  hav- 
ing at  least  the  ostensible  object  of  securing  fair 
rates  and  a  proper  division  of  traffic.  There  are, 
however,  some  inherent  difficulties  in  the  way  of 
such  arrangements,  arising  out  of  the  peculiar  cir- 
cumstances that  control  traffic  at  the  same  rates  on 
different  and  rival  lines,  which  when  left  to  its 
natural  action,  will  flow  more  to  one  than  to  the 
other,  and  the  result  is  pretty  sure  to  cause  sus- 
picion and  jealousy  on  the  part  of  those  having 
the  least  ability  to  control  this  tendency  ;  and  when 
trade  flows  against  them,  the  suspicion  is  easily 
aroused  to  account  for  this  result,  as  arising  from 
some  transgression  on  the  part  of  their  rival,  against 
the  programme  of  the  arrangement  previously 


292  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

entered  into.  And,  perhaps,  without  waiting  to 
obtain  correct  knowledge  of  facts,  they  proceed  to 
measures  equally  inconsistent  with  the  contract, 
and  the  parties  are  soon  floating  in  the  broad  field 
of  rivalry.  In  some  cases  of  rivalry,  there  is  no 
material  difficulty  of  this  sort,  and  with  fair  ar- 
rangements each  party  will  obtain  its  due  share  of 
the  traffic. 

No  railway  can  consent  that  its  rival  should  be 
allowed  to  establish  lower  rates  for  a  competing 
traffic  than  its  own,  for  of  all  the  advantages  that 
control  it,  there  is  none  so  effective  as  lower  rates, 
and  any  rival  line,  possessing  inferior  inducements, 
should  be  content  with  uniform  rates,  and  proper 
time  arrangements  for  the  running  of  trains,  and 
take  such  portion  of  the  traffic  as  will  naturally 
flow  to  it  under  the  circumstances  that  may 
exist.  Without  this,  no  arrangement  can  be  made 
of  any  practical  value — and  it  is  better  for  the 
inferior  line  to  submit  to  this,  and  obtain  fair  rates 
for  what  it  carries,  than  struggle  by  various  means 
to  do  a  business  that  will  not  pay  expenses.  But 
no  difficulty  need  to  exist,  where  the  lines  will 
naturally  make  a  fair  division  of  the  traffic  com- 
peted for  at  equal  rates. 

It  must  be  conceded,  that  in  general  this  kind  of 
arrangement  or  contract  between  rival  lines,  has 


OPERATING COMPETITION.  293 

not  been  very  successful  in  promoting  the  interest 
of  the  proprietors.  It  has  rarely  happened  that 
they  have  been  in  force  any  great  length  of  time, 
before  some  party  imagines  he  can  make  something 
out  of  his  adroitness,  and  sets  at  work  to  obtain 
some  advantage  not  consistent  with  the  contract ; 
he  may  employ  agents  to  solicit  traffic,  and  secure 
an  influence  by  misrepresentations,  which  are  not 
particularly  unusual  with  that  class  of  men,  who 
often  exercise  great  skill,  and  produce  considerable 
effect  on  the  course  of  traffic ;  or,  by  the  aid  of 
free  tickets,  drawbacks  and  commissions,  the  rates 
are  often  actually  reduced,  though  the  tariff  stands 
formally  as  unchanged.  Such  practices  are  sure  to 
be  found  out  by  the  injured  party,  before  a  large 
amount  of  traffic  can  be  secured,  and  of  course 
measures  are  taken  to  counteract  them,  and  the 
agreement  falls  to  the  ground.  The  measures  that 
have  been  attempted  to  enforce  such  agreements, 
and  punish  the  faithless  party  by  fines,  have  not  pro- 
duced any  important  results  that  I  have  known. 
This  class  of  contracts  must  rely  mainly  on  the  good 
sense  and  fidelity  of  the  parties. 

Railway  managers  make  great  efforts  to  estab- 
lish arrangements,  that  will  enable  all  to  obtain 
fair  rates  and  reduce  expenses,  a  proceeding  that 
should  be  beneficial  to  their  mutual  interests ;  but 


294:  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

the  several  parties  (usually  the  principal  operating 
officers),  pursue  this  with  different  motives ;  one 
enters  upon  the  negotiations  in  good  faith,  intend- 
ing to  carry  out  faithfully  the  arrangement  he 
agrees  to,  while  another  only  designs  to  make  it  a 
cover,  to  secure  undue  advantages.  No  sooner  is 
the  contract  made,  than  the  latter,  considering  his 
rival  restricted  by  the  contract,  and  relying  as 
before  observed  on  his  ingenuity  and  cunning,  goes 
to  work  to  defeat  the  object  of  the  contract  by 
various  devices,  which  he  designs  to  hide  from  his 
rival ;  and  by  employing  the  means  before  described, 
aims  to  influence  the  direction  of  traffic,  and  all  in 
conflict  with  the  contract  between  the  parties. 

In  view  of  the  short  time  that  such  measures 
may  be  practised,  before  the  facts  will  come  to  the 
knowledge  of  his  rival,  the  practice  indicates  great 
want  of  sagacity  on  the  part  of  the  offending  party, 
whose  bold  denials  and  slender  evasions,  to  fasten 
tne  fault  on  some  subordinate,  are  often  as  ludicrous 
as  they  are  dishonest. 

It  is  quite  apparent  that  contracts  with  such 
parties  must  be  of  short  duration,  and  end  in  open 
rivalry,  greatly  to  the  prejudice  of  the  proprietary 
interests  of  both  lines.  Some  operating  managers 
appear  to  regard  this  as  shrewd  practice,  and  as  a 
laudable  aim  to  advance  the  interest  of  their  lines ; 


OPERATING COMPETITION.  295 

but  it  presents  a  grave  question  to  their  employers  ; 
for  if  their  agent  is  ready  to  cheat  their  rivals,  little 
doubt  can  be  entertained,  on  the  occurrence  of  an 
opportunity,  that  he  would  be  quite  as  ready  to 
cheat  them.  The  real  difficulty  is,  the  employers 
generally  know  very  little  about  the  matter,  and 
what  they  do  know,  is  usually  from  the  offending 
officials. 

The  mischief  of  competition  cannot  be  healed 
without  good  faith  on  both  sides.  In  the  absence 
of  this  on  either  side,  all  efforts  will  be  abortive. 
But  the  end  to  be  secured,  namely,  fair  rates  and 
moderate  expenses  must  be  reached,  or  the  proprie- 
tary interest  must  suffer,  and  the  means  suggested 
are  indispensable  from  the  circumstances  of  com- 
peting lines  of  railway.  Certainly  so  far  very  little 
has  been  effected  in  securing  fair  rates  for  rival 
traffic,  a  fact  by  no  means  creditable  to  railway 
management. 

It  is  in  the  nature  of  things,  that  railways  hold- 
ing certain  relations  to  each  other,  divide  the 
traffic,  or  a  certain  portion  of  it,  on  equal  tariff 
rates,  and  the  traffic  must  take  one  or  the  other 
line.  The  question  for  the  proprietors  therefore  is, 
shall  equitable  arrangement  be  made  and  main- 
tained, which  shall  secure  fair  rates  and  economize 
expenses  ?  or  shall  we,  by  costly,  and  irresponsible 


296  KAIL^Al    PROPERTY. 


agencies  and  other  extra  expenses,  endeavor  to 
show  large  gross  receipts,  and  thus  control  at  un- 
remunerating  rates  a  traffic  that  should  afford  a 
reasonable  profit  ?  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that 
no  increase  results  from  extra  expenses  and  low 
rates,  for  the  rival  line,  by  similar  efforts,  still 
divides  the  traffic  in  about  the  same  ratio  as  would 
be  the  case  on  a  fair  and  equitable  contract.  The 
public  gain  by  the  low  rates,  and  under  this  in- 
fluence there  will  probably  be  an  aggregate  in- 
crease in  the  volume  of  the  traffic,  but  this  will  be 
lost  in  density  and  value,  and  the  proprietors  will 
only  have  the  consolation  of  loading  their  track 
with  a  traffic  that  yields  little  if  any  profit,  if  not 
productive  of  positive  loss. 

In  the  condition  of  many  railways  in  this  coun- 
try, the  amount  of  traffic  in  competition  is  very 
large,  and  the  proprietary  interest  involved  in 
its  management  very  important.  Cases  occur  in 
which  it  is  very  difficult  to  manage  it  successfully  ; 
but  in  many  others,  the  only  thing  necessary,  is  a 
sound  business  sagacity,  exercised  with  fidelity 
and  firmness  to  secure  paying  rates.  A  competing 
railway  is  not  like  the  competition  of  stage  coach 
lines,  where  one  party  aims  at  breaking  down  the 
other,  and  thereby  securing  a  monopoly  of  the 
trade;  for  a  railway  that  has  a  local  traffic  suffi- 


OPERATING COMPETITION.  297 

cient  to  keep  it  in  operation,  will  always  have  the 
power  to  act  on  its  rival.  It  cannot  be  broken 
down,  and  will  always  be  in  the  field  as  a  compe- 
titor, and  if  it  cannot  maintain  the  rival  traffic  at  a 
profit,  will  be  able  to  prevent  its  competitor  from 
making  profit;  and  though  naturally  inferior  in 
capacity,  its  inferiority  is  not  often  so  decided  as  to 
prevent  it  from  destroying  in  a  great  measure,  if  not 
wholly,  the  profits  of  the  rival  line. 

It  is  sometimes  urged  that  a  railway  is  so  loaded 
with  capital  and  other  liabilites  that  it  cannot  com- 
pete with  one  less  burdened  in  this  respect.  A 
little  reflection  will  indicate  the  fallacy  of  such 
reasoning ;  for  whatever  may  be  the  liabilities,  if 
there  is  sufficient  local  traffic  to  pay  current  ex- 
penses, and  so  much  for  the  use  of  the  rails  as 
they  are  worth  for  old  iron,  it  is  pretty  certain  to 
be  kept  running,  and  there  'are  few  that  cannot  do 
this  on  their  local  traffic.  If  the  railway  was  a 
project  to  be  made,  then  its  cost  would  be  a  legiti- 
mate question  in  reference  to  its  ability  to  maintain 
successfully  a  competition  with  a  line  already  in 
operation  ;  but  it  is  constructed,  and  whether  it  has 
cost  little  or  much,  will  most  likely  find  traffic 
enough  to  perpetuate  its  running,  and  keep  it  in 
the  field  as  a  competitor  with  lines,  having  in  some 
respects  greater  advantages.  Is  it  therefore  wise  to 
13* 


298  EAILWAY   PROPERTY. 

lightly  esteem  a  rival  ? — far  better  to  arrange  terms 
on  the  basis  of  existing  facts,  and  by  equitable 
arrangement  secure  a  fair  rate  for  the  traffic  to  be 
carried. 


OPERATING FINANCIAL   MANAGEMENT.  299 


CHAPTER  XXIX. 

OPERATING FINANCIAL    MANAGEMENT. 

IT  would  be  superfluous  to  discuss  in  detail  the 
leading  object  the  proprietors  have  in  advancing 
funds  for  a  railway.  A  limited  number  have 
doubtless  been  influenced  by  considerations  of  the 
indirect  benefits  they  may  derive  from  the  results 
of  the  anticipated  working  of  the  railway  on  pro- 
perty and  trade;  but  in  the  main,  they  look  for 
remuneration  in  direct  net  profits  from  the  traffic. 
It  cannot  be  doubted  that  the  indirect  benefits  are 
far  greater  than  the  direct,  and  these  accrue,  not 
only  to  those  who  subscribe  with  this  object,  but  to 
the  community  on  the  route,  generally,  who  may 
not,  and  generally  do  not,  furnish  any  mateiial 
portion  of  the  funds  required  for  the  work.  For 
the  main  part,  the  funds  have  been  furnished  by 
those  who  take  the  securities  as  an  investment, 
depending  wholly  on  obtaining  compensation  from 
the  net  profits  of  the  traffic,  and  are  no  way  inter- 
ested in  the  indirect  benefits  that  result  to  property 
and  trade.  This  class,  and  especially  those  that 


#00  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

rely  on  the  stock  securities,  take  the  financial  bur- 
den of  the  railway.  The  class  of  stock  subscribers 
relying  on  the  indirect  advantages  are  usually 
quite  small  in  proportion,  and  are  pretty  sure  to 
find  their  full  remuneration. 

The  stock  proprietors,  having  usually  waited 
some  time  for  the  construction  of  the  work,  natu- 
rally look  with  anxiety,  as  soon  as  the  railway  is 
opened  for  traffic,  for  the  prospects  of  a  dividend 
on  their  stock,  and  it  is  quite  proper  the  Directors 
should  feel  a  desire,  so  far  as  they  may  have 
power,  to  gratify  this  reasonable  anxiety  of  the 
stock  proprietors.  Few  railways  have  been  com- 
pleted without  contracting  a  debt,  with  a  prior 
lien  on  the  property,  that  must  be  provided  for 
before  dividends  can  be  declared,  and  the  first 
appropriations  from  the  net  income  on  traffic,  must 
satisfy  the  interest  and  sinking  fund  on  the  funded 
debt.  In  the  incipient  operations  of  the  railway, 
this  funded  debt,  according  to  its  relative  magni- 
tude, will  interfere  with  dividends  to  the  stock  pro- 
prietors until  the  net  income  on  the  traffic"  shall 
equal  the  same  interest  on  the  whole  capital  that  is 
paid  on  the  bonded  debt,  with  a  surplus  over  this 
equal  to  the  sinking  fund,  and  then  both  classes  of 
proprietors  will  be  equally  well  paid  for  the  time. 
For  the  time  that  may  elapse  before  this  result  is 


OPERATmtJ — FINANCIAL   MANAGEMENT.          301 

reached,  the  bond  proprietors  will  be  fully  paid, 
while  the  stock  proprietors  may  receive  a  small,  or 
perhaps  no  interest  on  their  outlay ;  and  can  only 
hope  an  increasing  traffic  will  eventually  afford 
them  an  equivalent  for  the  loss  of  back  interest. 
If  the  funds  were  all  from  stock  proprietors,  and 
no  bonded  debt  incurred,  the  whole  net  income 
would  be  applicable  for  dividends  to  stock  proprie- 
tors, and  dividends  would  be  earlier  expected. 
This,  however,  is  not  often  the  case;  a  bonded 
debt,  at  least  equal  to  the  amount  of  stock,  is  more 
common,  and  to  provide  for  the  interest  and  sink- 
ing fund  on  the  former,  is  on  many  railways  an  im- 
portant, and  sometimes  in  the  early  operations,  a 
difficult  duty  in  the  financial  management ;  but  as 
the  funds  obtained  for  the  bonded  debt,  could  only 
have  been  obtained  on  this  basis,  there  is  no  alter- 
native, unless,  by  some  evasive  repudiation,  it  is 
neglected  for  the  benefit  of  the  stock  proprietors; 
a  process  of  cheating  that  can  only  be  classed  with 
other  acts  of  infidelity,  whereby  men  appropiate 
the  property  of  others  to  their  own  use. 

At  the  opening  of  a  railway,  the  net  income 
must  be  matter  of  conjecture,  and  considerable  time 
will  be  required  to  ascertain  it  with  reasonable  cer- 
tainty, and  thus  determine  the  basis  for  dividends 
011  the  stock.  It  usually  happens  that  conjecture 


302  RAILWAY   PEOPEETY. 

is  sanguine,  and  urgently  presses  the  promise  of 
early  and  liberal  dividends  ;  and  it  becomes  impor- 
tant to  look  carefully  at  the  bearing  of  this  ques- 
tion on  the  permanent  interests  of  the  proprietors. 

On  the  opening  of  a  railway,  there  is,  in  most 
cases,  a  respectable  amount  of  traffic  ready  for  its 
occupation.  This  will  increase  by  the  well  estab- 
lished laws  of  trade — namely,  that  improved  facili- 
ties enhance  the  development  of  existing  traffic, 
and  new  items  of  trade  are  brought  out  by  the 
superior  cheapness  of  transport.  If  the  natural 
resources  of  the  district  accommodated  by  the  rail- 
way are  but  indifferently  occupied,  as  may  be 
peculiarly  the  case  in  a  newly  settled  country,  it 
may  be  expected  that  the  increase  will  be  large,  as 
compared  to  that  enjoyed  at  the  opening,  and 
though  dividends  may  be  small,  or  even  nothing  in 
the  commencement  of  the  traffic,  they  will  eventu- 
ally be  remunerating. 

The  railway  and  machinery,  if  well  constructed, 
being  new,  the  repairs  and  maintenance  for  a  few 
years  will  be  comparatively  small,  and  the  net 
profits  will,  for  the  time,  be  larger  than  will  ulti- 
mately be  found  an  average  rate  on  the  traffic. 
Continued  use  will  impair  the  track  and  machinery, 
and  new  parts  will  be  required  for  their  efficient 
maintenance  and  usefulness,  consequently  it  must 


OPERATING — FINANCIAL   MANAGEMENT.          303 

be  expected  that  there  will  be  an  increase  of  cur- 
rent expenses  in  the  operation  of  a  railway.  It  is 
usual  to  estimate  the  probable  increase  in  the  traffic 
to  be  not  only  sufficient  to  meet  this  increase  of  ex- 
pense, but  to  even  more  than  do  it,  and  to  justify 
the  expectation  of  an  increasing  rate  of  dividend. 
The  more  prudent  course  would  be,  to  make  ade- 
quate provision  by  a  reserved  fund,  that  may  very 
properly  be  appropriated  to  the  purchase  of  new 
machinery,  to  meet  the  growing  wants  of  increasing 
traffic ;  instead  of  the  too  common  course,  of 
increasing  the  indebtedness  of  the  Institution  for 
this  purpose.  The  latter  course  is  most  likely  to  be 
pursued,  if  there  be  an  influence  in  the  Board  of 
Directors  that  seeks  to  elevate  the  market  value  of 
the  stock,  as  it  is  well  understood  that  dividends 
are  a  material  element  in  promoting  such  a  result, 
without  much  reference  to  the  sources  from  whence 
they  are  derived.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  rail- 
way property  is  regarded  as  an  investment  of  funds, 
and  governed  on  the  same  business  principle  as 
would  control  an  intelligent  individual,  who  would 
not  esteem  the  payment  from  one  hand  to  the  other 
as  evidence  that  his  property  was  thereby  enhanced 
in  value,  the  management  will  be  different.  All 
efforts  to  produce  fictitious  value,  either  a  rise  or 
fall,  can  be  no  benefit  to  the  property;  and  can 


304  RAILWAY   PROPERTY. 

only  be  viewed  as  means  of  deception,  practised  on 
those  who  may  unwittingly  repose  confidence  in 
unfaithful  managers.  It  is  sometimes  said  in  oppo- 
sition to  this  view,  that  the  stock  proprietors  are 
entitled  to  all  that  has  been  earned,  and  the  mana- 
gers have  no  right  to  appropriate  net  earnings  to 
purchase  new  machinery,  or  for  other  purposes 
legitimately  belonging  to  the  construction  account, 
and  that  funds  for  these  should  be  obtained  on  loan, 
or  by  the  issue  of  new  stock  shares,  even  if  by 
these  means  funds  can  only  be  obtained  by  a  consi- 
derable discount.  It  is  urged,  in  support  of  this 
method,  that  the  stock  proprietors  cannot  afford  to 
do  without  dividends,  to  the  full  measure  of  net 
income,  and  that  it  is  not  right  to  withhold  them 
from  them.  In  carrying  out  this  principle,  great 
skill  and  liberality  is  often  practised  in  charging 
over  to  construction,  for  the  purpose  of  showing  an 
apparently  small  amount  of  current  expenses.  And 
hence  the  construction  account  has  come  to  be 
regarded  an  abyss,  never  to  be  satisfied,  constantly 
swelling  the  liabilities  of  the  company.  Under 
this  mode  of  proceeding,  dividends  may  be  made, 
provided  the  managers  have  credit,  or  the  Institu- 
tion has  credit  to  borrow  funds,  until  the  means  of 
dividend  be  totally  exhausted.  The  test  of  this 
argument,  or  method  of  business,  will  rarely,  if 


OPERATING— FINANCIAL   MANAGEMENT.          305 

ever,  be  made  bj  the  stock  proprietors,  so  long  as 
they  receive  the  semi-annual  dividends  of  four  or 
five,  or  even  three  and  a-half  per  cent. ;  and  they 
will  not  often  inquire  as  to  the  source  from  which 
the  dividend  money  came. 

Men  who  have  invested  their  funds  in  railway 
property  have  the  right  to  all  the  property  can 
earn,  and  no  doubt  many  have  need  of  early 
income,  and  whether  they  need  it  or  not,  are  enti- 
tled to  receive  it,  so  far  as  net  income  has  been  pro- 
duced by  the  traffic ;  but  their  interest  as  an  Insti- 
tution certainly  will  not  be  promoted  by  borrowing 
funds,  instead  of  using  their  own,  to  meet  expenses 
that  must  be  incurred  to  extend  or  sustain  their 
works.  It  may  not  be  best  to  dispense  with  early 
dividends,  and  if  affairs  have  been  discreetly  man- 
aged this  will  not  ordinarily  be  necessary ;  but  the 
dividends  should  be  made  with  a  view  to  provide 
for  depreciation,  and  the  funds  reserved  for  renew- 
als need  not  be  idle  in  waiting  for  depreciation  to 
occur.  They  can  be  used,  as  before  stated,  in  pro- 
riding  new  machinery  for  increasing  traffic,  instead 
of  funds  being  borrowed,  for  such  purpose,  at  a  dis- 
count, and  these  may  be  charged  to  construction, 
and  remain  in  that  shape  as  a  surplus  account. 

In  order  to  illustrate  the  method  recommended, 
let  it  be  supposed,  that  the  strict  net  income,  after 


306  RAILWAY   PROPERTY. 

the  payment  of  expenses,  interest  and  sinking  fund, 
shows  a  balance  of  eight  per  cent,  per  annum; 
which  may  be  the  case  on  a  comparatively  small 
traffic,  on  a  new  and  well  made  railway  while 
expenses  are  low.  Let  five  per  cent,  per  annum 
be  paid  as  dividend  to  stock  proprietors,  and  three 
per  cent,  be  carried  to  surplus  account.  This 
surplus  will  probably  be  needed,  for  additional 
machinery,  for  side  tracks,  ballasting,  or  other 
necessary  improvements  that  may  be  demanded  by 
an  increasing  traffic.  By  this  plan  the  surplus  will 
be  safely  invested  in  property  required  by  the  wants 
of  the  institution.  The  second  year  the  improving 
traffic  we  will  suppose  adds  to  the  net  income  one 
per  cent.,  and  if  not  called  for  to  meet  any  greater 
demand  than  was  made  the  previous  year  for  ex- 
tensions and  improvements  in  the  works,  let  the 
dividend  be  six  per  cent,  per  annum  for  this  year, 
leaving  the  surplus  of  three  per  cent,  to  be  carried 
forward  in  the  same  way  as  before.  After  this,  as 
the  traffic  may  warrant,  pay  six  per  cent,  dividends 
and  no  more,  until  the  surplus  can  no  longer  be  dis- 
creetly expended  for  necessary  objects  of  construe 
tion.  If  the  income  continues  to  improve,  as  it 
most  probably  will,  and  the  net  earnings  warrant  it, 
let  the  dividend  be  raised  to  seven  per  cent,  pei 
annum,  and  so  far  as  the  surplus  is  not  wanted  to 


OPERATING FINANCIAL   MANAGEMENT.  307 

increase  the  machinery  or  improve  the  works,  let  it 
be  appropriated  to  purchase  the  bonds  of  the  com- 
pany. "When  the  bonds  and  all  other  indebtedness 
of  the  institution  is  liquidated,  it  will  be  proper  to 
convert  the  surplus  account,  as  circumstances  may 
warrant,  into  a  stock  dividend,  to  be  issued  to  the 
stock  proprietors,  who  will  now  be  the  sole  proprie- 
tors. The  railway  being  now  in  good  condition, 
with  ample  machinery  for  its  traffic,  and  the  inte- 
rest and  sinking  fund  account  closed,  it  will  be  able 
to  make  its  regular  dividend  on  a  corresponding 
increase  of  capital,  and  the  stock  proprietor  finds 
his  compensation,  and  though  deferred,  his  invest- 
ment proves  the  best  in  the  institution,  as  it  ought, 
he  having  taken  all  the  risk  of  the  enterprise.  If 
he  has  not  received  the  benefit  at  an  earlier  day,  he 
finds  no  serious  losses  by  discounts  to  obtain  funds, 
and,  by  a  judicious  management  of  the  surplus,  he 
finds  a  property  in  sound  condition  as  to  its  works 
and  outfit  for  its  now  enlarged  traffic.  There  has 
been  no  demoralization  of  its  operations,  from  insnf- 
ficient  means  of  prompt  payment,  and  he  now  gets 
back  the  full  amount,  with  interest,  of  all  that  was 
due  from  net  resource.  On  this  method  the  rate  of 
dividend  in  the  early  stage  and  the  advancing  pro- 
gress may  vary  according  to  the  exigencies  of  the 
case,  and  the  profits  of  the  traffic ;  but  it  should 


308  RAILWAY   PROPERTY. 

not  be  high,  and  should  depend  on  the  wants  of  the 
works,  and  the  amount  of  indebtedness,  keeping  in 
view  the  policy,  not  only  of  avoiding  new  liabilities, 
but  of  making  as  early  liquidation  of  existing 
indebtedness  as  may  be  consistent  with  giving  a 
small  but  regular  return  to  the  stock  proprietors  in 
the  form  of  dividends.  Such  a  system  of  financial 
management  would  be  more  likely  than  any  other 
to  induce  economy  and  fidelity  in  conducting  the 
business  of  the  institution. 

Regularity  and  reasonble  certainty  in  dividends  is 
generally  regarded  important  in  this  kind  of  pro- 
perty, and  especially  to  those  who  depend  on  it  for 
means  to  meet  current  expenses ;  but  trade  will  fluc- 
tuate, productions  will  be  irregular,  and  these  will 
cause  irregularities  in  the  traffic,  and  consequently 
in  the  net  income  of  the  railway.  Changes  must 
take  place  in  this  branch  of  business,  the  same  as  in 
all  others,  and  income  will  necessarily  vary;  this 
must  be  anticipated  in  all  systems  of  finance.  In 
order  to  secure  regularity  in  dividends,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  ascertain  the  average  of  several  years, 
tvhich  will  embrace  the  extremes  of  fluctuation, 
and  by  reserving  something  as  a  surplus  from  the 
more  productive  years,  be  prepared,  from  this 
reserve  fund,  to  meet  the  regular  dividend  in  those 
years  that  prove  less  productive.  And  if  it  appear 


OPERATING — FINANCIAL   MANAGEMENT.  309 

that  a  larger  reserve  has  been  made  than  the  exi- 
gencies of  the  finances  require,  and  especially  if 
there  be  no  debts  to  pay  or  provide  for,  let  it  be 
converted  into  a  surplus  dividend,  and  carried 
where  it  belongs,  to  the  credit  of  the  stock  pro- 
prietor. This  principle  of  finance  is  the  more  im- 
portant, if  the  institution  is  under  obligation  to 
provide  interest  and  sinking  fund  on  a  bonded 
debt,  or  has  important  renewals  or  improvements 
to  make  in  its  works.  If  the  railway  be  mainly, 
or  wholly,  a  stock  property,  and  the  proprietors 
prefer  to  do  so,  it  is  perfectly  proper  for  them  to 
divide  each  year,  according  to  the  net  income  ;  but 
they  must  expect,  on  this  method,  to  experience 
more  or  less  of  fluctuation  in  semi-annual  divi- 
dends, and  thereby  increase  the  temptation  to 
stock  speculation  on  the  part  of  their  managers 
and  officers,  who  will  best  know  the  effect  of  the 
dividend  on  the  market  value  of  the  property. 

I  am  well  aware  that  the  plan  of  finance  here 
proposed  will  be  regarded  with  disfavor  by  many 
railway  managers ;  who  prefer  more  of  what  they 
term  liberality  in  dividends,  and  do  not  fear  to 
augment  and  swell  the  construction  account ;  a 
mode  of  proceeding  that  has  a  glittering  present, 
and,  as  has  often  proved,  a  most  disastrous  future. 
The  great  question  for  the  proprietary  interest  to 


310  RAILWAY    PROPERTY.    ' 

consider  is.  What  shall  be  the  basis  of  financial 
management  ?  Experience  has  shown  that  it  must 
be  either  a  speculative  or  a  business  basis.  The 
former  is  a  dangerous  policy  for  those  of  the  pro- 
prietors who  may  not  be  of  the  party  in  control  to 
reap  the  benefit.  All  cannot  speculate  with  profit 
— there  must  be  a  portion  of  the  proprietors  to  be 
speculated  upon,  in  order  to  have  a  basis  for  suc- 
cessful speculation,  and  this  class  must  be  the  un- 
suspecting portion  of  the  stock  proprietors.  To  the 
initiated,  there  will  appear  no  great  difficulty, 
where  there  are  numerous  proprietors  in  a  joint 
stock  property  of  this  kind,  for  cunning  and  un- 
principled men  to  waste  the  property,  at  the  same 
time  they  are  making  fair,  and  perhaps  good  semi- 
annual dividends.  The  first  serious  check  to  the 
course  of  the  speculating  party,  will  appear  in  their 
inability  to  make  further  loans ;  for  it  usually  hap- 
pens, that  the  money-lender  is  more  acute  in  appre- 
hending the  tendency  of  affairs  than  the  stock  pro- 
prietor, who  may  be  lulled  by  dividends  ;  and  the 
cessation  of  the  power  to  loan  is  usually  followed 
by  a  cessation  of  dividends.  This  condition  of  the 
finances  of  the  institution  will  most  probably  be 
anticipated  by  the  shrewd  speculative  -manager, 
who  takes  care  to  dispose  of  his  interest  to  unsus- 
pecting parties,  in  time  to  avoid  loss,  while  the 


OPERATING FINANCIAL   MANAGEMENT.  311 

great  mass  of  proprietors  are  suddenly  roused  up, 
just  in  time  to  see  their  property  take  wings  and 
fly  away.  There  is  another  feature  of  the  specula- 
tive policy  very  mischievous  to  the  proprietors, 
namely,  the  practice  of  buying  and  selling  the 
stock  of  the  company  on  speculation,  by  which 
the  parties  engaged  are  at  one  time  interested  in  a 
rise,  and  at  another  in  the  fall  of  the  market  value. 
In  regard  to  this  practice,  it  may  be  said,  any 
manager  has  a  right  to  buy  and  sell  the  stock  of  his 
company,  and  that  he  injures  no  one  by  so  doing. 
This  is  a  plausible  reason,  and  is  sufficient  for  all 
the  ordinary  transactions  of  this  kind,  based  on  the 
circumstances  and  wants  of  the  manager  for  actual 
investment.  But  when  the  chief  officers  and  in- 
fluential managers  of  a  company  are  known  to 
operate  largely  in  a  speculative  way  in  the  stock, 
they  are  strongly  tempted  to  neglect  the  pro- 
prietary interests  committed  to  their  trust,  at  any 
time  when  their  operations  in  stock  will  thereby  be 
promoted.  And  further :  The  men  whose  minds 
are  of  a  speculative  turn  are  liable,  and  indeed  it 
may  be  said  generally  do,  devote  so  large  a  share 
of  their  care  and  attention  to  objects  and  means  of 
speculation,  that  there  is  not  sufficient  time  and 
thought  left  to  manage  successfully  the  affairs  of 
the  proprietors,  even  if  they  made  the  best  of  this 


312  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

hastily  snatched  remainder.  No  doubt  it  may  be 
set  down  as  a  standing  caution,  that  if  a  proprietor 
chance  to  learn  that  the  President,  Treasurer,  Secre- 
tary, or  Superintendent,  or  the  more  active  and  in- 
fluential directors,  are  engaged  in  large  stock  opera- 
tions, making  time  sales  and  corners,  it  would  be 
wise  for  him  to  watch  a  favorable  opportunity  to 
dispose  of  his  interest  in  the  institution.  This 
method  of  business  is  only  to  be  adopted  by  such 
managers  and  officers  as  prefer  the  chance  of  spe- 
culative results,  and  whose  prospects  will  depend 
on  the  number  and  interest  of  those  who  may 
incautiously  be  induced  to  engage,  on  the  suppo- 
sition that  affairs  are,  and  are  to  be,  conducted  for 
the  general  interest  of  the  proprietors. 

The  other — -namely,  the  business  basis  before 
mentioned,  is  predicated  on  a  system  of  manage- 
ment that  seeks  its  results  in  a  wise,  just  and  busi- 
ness-like conduct  of  affairs.  Practising  sound  econ- 
omy in  all  objects  of  expenditure — discarding  all 
traffic  that  will  not  pay  some  net  income — having 
no  taste  for  a  large  gross  revenue  that  is  accompa- 
nied by  equally  large  gross  expenses — nursing  all 
traffic  that  can  be  found  to  pay  a  reasonable,  or  at 
least  some,  net  income — in  short,  practising  the 
course  usually  followed  by  discreet  business  men  in 
the  conduct  of  their  private  affairs;  regarding  the 


OPERATING — FINANCIAL   MANAGEMENT.  313 

prosperity  of  the  institution  as  the  controlling  ob- 
ject sought,  and  pursuing  this  with  singleness  of 
purpose,  aiming  to  exercise  the  same  unremitting 
attention  and  sagacity  that  actuates  a  discreet  indi- 
vidual in  conducting  his  affairs.  So  obviously  just 
and  proper  is  this  method,  both  in  regard  to  the 
construction  and  the  operating  of  a  railway,  that 
the  manager,  however  his  individual  tendencies 
may  be  toward  speculations  and  jobs,  will  profess 
to  be  wholly  guided  by  its  rules ;  and  it  may  not 
be  easy  for  the  confiding  proprietor,  or  even  his  co- 
manager,  to  always  understand,  until  too  late,  the 
unsatisfactory  basis  of  such  professions.  This  lat- 
ter, however,  is  an  evil  incidental  to  humanity,  and 
no  man  may  be  able  to  penetrate  the  veil  that  hides 
the  purpose  of  the  manager ;  and  perhaps  the  pur- 
pose is  scarcely  formed,  or  if  so,  very  imperfectly 
matured  ;  and  yet  it  will  probably  be  developed  ir 
the  ultimate  prostration,  if  not  the  total  ruin,  of  the 
institution.  That  this  evil  is  one  of  imminent  dan- 
ger, is  sadly  proved  by  the  history  of  railways ;  and 
the  question  naturally  arises,  How  are  the  proprie- 
tors to  guard  against  it  ?  A  question  more  easily 
asked  than  answered. 

The  stock  proprietors,  though  first  to  feel  the 
effect  of  incompetent  or  unfaithful  management, 
are  not  the  only  parties  to  experience  the  disastrous 

14 


314  RAILWAY   PROPERTY. 

results.  The  bond  proprietor  may  also  suffer,  espe- 
cially if  the  bonded  debt  be  a  large  proportion  of 
the  capital  of  the  institution.  This  class,  having  no 
voice  in  the  management,  are  usually  very  quiet  so 
long  as  their  interest  is  punctually  paid.  It  is  very 
natural  that  they  should  feel  a  higher  degree  of 
safety  than  the  stock  proprietors,  who  may  be 
wholly  sacrificed  before  the  bond-holders  feel  a  loss. 
Experience,  however,  has  shown  that  they  are  not 
free  from  the  ills  and  hazards  of  bad  management. 
It  is  true  the  stock  must  be  first  sacrificed,  and  after 
dividends  can  no  longer  be  paid  to  the  stock  pro- 
prietors, the  interest  may  be  continued  for  a  time 
on  the  bonds;  but  it  rarely  fails,  that  the  policy 
which  has  destroyed  the  stock,  will  also  destroy, 
more  or  less,  the  security  of  the  bonds.  Secured 
as  the  bonds  usually  are  by  a  mortgage  of  the 
whole  property,  it  would  seem  to  be  in  the  power 
of  the  bondholders,  on  the  failure  of  the  company, 
to  take  possession  by  foreclosure,  and  enter  into  the 
management  as  sole  proprietors  ;  but  there  are  diffi- 
culties in  the  way.  In  the  first  place,  there  is  the 
difficulty  of  obtaining  concert  among  the  bond  pro- 
prietors to  act  in  the  premises  ;  and  as  more  or  less 
of  pecuniary  responsibility  must  be  incurred,  a 
part  do  not  like  to  put  themselves  under  engage- 
ments, without  the  cooperation  of  the  whole,  and 


OPERATING— FINANCIAL   MANAGEMENT.  315 

here  they  find  themselves  somewhat  in  the  position  of 
stock  proprietors,  a  numerous  body,  incapable  of  that 
cooperation  necessary  to  secure  efficiency,  and  though 
some  are  ready  and  anxious  to  proceed,  others  will 
hold  back,  to  avoid  responsibility,  while  they  are 
quite  ready  to  avail  themselves  of  the  benefits  that 
may  result  from  the  efforts  of  their  co-bondholders. 
The  second  difficulty  arises  from  the  unwillingness 
of  the  stock  proprietors  and  unsecured  creditors  to 
allow  the  railway  to  go  into  the  hands  of  the  bond- 
holders under  a  foreclosure  that  will  cut  off  their 
claims.  Though  no  dividend  is  paid  on  the  stock, 
it  may  be  a  well  founded  opinion  that  good  man- 
agement, and  improved  prosperity  of  trade,  may 
show  the  institution  to  have  some  value  for  the 
stock  proprietor,  and  this  it  is  natural  he  should 
desire  to  secure.  The  third  difficulty  grows  out 
of  the  floating  debt,  which  is  usually  large,  under 
such  circumstances,  and  much  of  it  due  to  laborers 
for  operations  on  the  railway,  and  for  supplies  in 
the  operating  department,  mostly  due  to  persons  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  railway.  This  class  of  creditors 
usually  threaten  to  mob  and  drive  off  any  party 
that  shall  attempt  to  operate  the  railway  without 
acknowledging  their  claim  to  payment.  The  fourth 
difficulty  is  found  in  the  courts,  that  in  some  instan- 
ces either  repudiate  the  power  of  the  bondholders 


316  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

to  take  absolute  possession  under  the  mortgage,  or 
BO  qualify  this  power  as  to  make  it  little  more  than 
a  nullity ;  but  if  the  courts  find  the  terms  of  the 
mortgage  so  explicit  that  they  cannot  evade  them, 
they  can  often  aid  in  protracting  the  proceedings  so 
as  to  work  much  embarrassment  to  the  bondholders. 
It  is  not  to  be  inferred  that  all  courts  proceed  in 
this  way,  for  there  are  yet  found  judges  who  feel 
the  responsibility  and  dignity  of  their  position,  and 
may  be  relied  on  to  maintain  the  object  of  their 
institution,  namely,  the  administration  of  justice 
between  parties,  without  regard  to  the  parties.  It 
is  indeed  unfortunate  that  the  latter  class  are  not 
more  numerous,  but  they  no  doubt  hold  their  rela- 
tive position,  according  to  the  degree  of  our  civili- 
zation, and  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  adjudica- 
tion between  a  railway  corporation  and  an  individ- 
ual is  a  thing  that  tests  the  firmness  of  a  court  in  a 
high  degree.  Notwithstanding  all  the  difficulties, 
as  the  right  of  the  case  is  on  the  side  of  the  bond- 
holders, they  ultimately  succeed,  if  the  traffic  of  the 
railway  is  worth  it,  in  securing  the  payment  of 
principal  and  interest,  though  they  are  sometimes 
induced  to  acquire  control  under  stipulation  to  pay 
a  certain  class  of  operating  debts,  and  after  reim- 
bursing their  own  interest,  to  give  the  stock  propri- 
etors and  unsecured  creditors  'vhatever  may  remain, 


OPERATING FINANCIAL   MANAGEMENT.  317 

and  which  is  an  equitable  result  not  often  com- 
plained of  by  the  bondholders.  Mortgage  bonds 
of  a  railway  corporation,  which,  from  inadequate 
traffic,  or  ill-management,  does  not  pay  its  stock 
proprietors,  are  far  from  being  that  quiet  and  relia- 
ble source  of  revenue  that  many  have  supposed.  If 
the  management  of  a  railway  is  under  speculative 
control,  that  management  will  be  exerted  to  sustain 
the  stock  or  the  bond  proprietor,  as  may  happen  to 
be  the  interest  of  the  controlling  party.  If  the 
stock  controls,  and  the  prospect  is  regarded  doubt- 
ful as  to  the  ultimate  strength  of  the  stock,  it  may 
lead  to  movements  that  will  change  this  interest 
over  to  the  side  of  the  bondholder,  and  in  the  midst 
of  a  cloudy  and  vigorous  litigation,  the  path  of  right 
may  suddenly  appear  so  well  fortified  that  further 
resistance  will  be  vain,  and  matters  are  brought  to 
an  easy  solution  ;  the  bondholders  must,  at  least, 
be  provided  for,  and  the  stockholders  may  take 
what  remains.  The  bond  proprietor  is  not  at  fault, 
he  had  no  control  in  the  management  that  com- 
pelled this  result,  and  the  stock  proprietor  must 
bear  in  mind,  that  if  his  property  is  wasted,  it  has 
been  wasted  by  his  representative,  and  though  his 
trust  may  have  been  abused  and  forfeited,  it  is  no 
fault  of  the  bond  proprietor.  Instances  have  oc- 
curred in  which  the  bondholders  have  compromised 


318  EAILWAY   PROPERTY, 

their  claims,  by  delivering  up  the  coupons,  for  one 
or  more  years,  either  gratuitously  or  taking  therefor 
new  obligations  of  the  company,  secured  by  a 
younger  mortgage.  There  may  be  circumstances 
that  render  this  policy  expedient,  as  from  the 
recent  operations  of  the  railway  the  undeveloped 
traffic  may  not  afford  the  means  of  payment,  while 
the  future  prospect  is  favorable  for  the  ultimate 
ability  to  pay  current  interest  and  sinking  fund  ;  and 
if  there  is  confidence  in  the  fidelity  of  the  manage- 
ment, it  may  be  the  wisest  course  for  the  bond- 
holders. But  if  the  condition  of  the  company  has 
been  reduced  by  incompetent  or  unfaithful  manage- 
ment, no  good  is  likely  to  result  from  this  method, 
as  affairs  will  not  be  likely  to  improve,  and  when 
the  time  comes  for  payment  to  be  resumed,  the 
finances  will  be  no  better,  the  track  and  machinery 
in  worse  condition,  and  the  bond  proprietors  no 
more  favorably  situated  for  securing  their  rights 
than  they  were  when  the  coupons  were  surrendered. 
As  a  general  rule,  it  is  best  for  them  to  proceed  to 
take  possession  as  soon  as  payment  fails ;  delay 
rarely  works  to  their  advantage,  and  promptness 
and  efficiency  in  action  are  quite  as  necessary  to 
secure  their  rights  as  those  of  others.  It  should  be 
borne  in  mind,  that  the  same  incompetent  or  un- 
faithful management  that  has  destroyed  the  capa- 


OPERATING FINANCIAL   MANAGEMENT.  319 

city  to  pay  dividends  to  the  stock  proprietors,  will 
be  likely  to  prey  on  the  bond  proprietors  as  soon  as 
the  stock  interest  is  destroyed  or  paralyzed,  and  a 
new  administration  of  affairs  is  necessary  to  secure 
the  property.  It  is  well  and  equitable  for  tho 
bondholders  to  take  possession,  under  stipulation, 
after  providing  for  their  interest  and  sinking  fund, 
to  pay  any  surplus  over  to  unsecured  creditors  and 
stock  proprietors,  and  very  likely  the  latter  interest 
will  be  best  promoted  by  such  change  of  adminis- 
tration, in  removing  from  power  a  set  of  unprinci- 
pled speculators,  or  incompetent  managers,  who 
will  never  advance  the  interest  of  either  class  of 
proprietors,  or  their  creditors.  A  railway  that  can- 
not pay  interest  on  its  bonds  must  indeed  be  a  very 
poor  project,  and  the  fact  that  interest  is  withheld, 
may  be  generally  regarded  as  evidence  that  affairs 
are  not  properly  conducted,  and  will  not  improve 
by  indulgence.  It  is  admitted,  as  before  observed, 
that  there  may  be  exceptions  to  this  rule ;  but  it 
calls  for  careful  scrutiny,  if  the  bond  proprietors 
would  secure  their  rights. 


320  RAILWAY   PROPERTY. 


CHAPTEE    XXX. 

GENERAL    REMARKS 

THE  management  of  a  railway  must  necessarily 
be  a  trust  committed  to  men,  and  the  hope  of  the 
proprietors  must  rest  on  their  sagacity  in  selecting 
Buch  as  will  prove  competent  and  faithful.  In 
cases  where  this  has  been  successful,  institutions 
of  small  original  promise  have  proved  remunerat- 
ing, and  in  others,  where  the  speculating  class  have 
by  any  means  obtained  control,  the  most  promising 
railway  enterprises  have  been  so  reduced  as  to 
greatly  deteriorate,  if  not  to  utterly  ruin,  the  in- 
terest of  their  stock  proprietors. 

The  first  organization  of  a  Board  of  Directors  for 
the  management  of  a  railway  is  highly  important 
to  its  ultimate  success.  Experience  has  proved 
that  if  unfaithful  men  obtain  control  in  the  original 
organization,  it  is  very  difficult  to  remove  them, 
especially  in  large  and  important  institutions,  hav- 
ing a  great  number  of  proprietors,  and  those  scat- 
tered widely  apart — unacquainted  with  each  other 
and  the  details  of  their  property.  The  necessary 


GENERAL   REMARKS.  321 

combination  required  for  that  efficient  action  which 
is  requisite  to  effect  a  change,  is  hardly  practicable, 
at  least  until  the  institution  has  fallen  so  low  in 
business  and  credit,  that  dividends  can  no  longer  be 
made—the  interest  on  the  bonded  debt  deferred, 
and  an  over-shadowing  floating  debt  leaving  little 
for  the  stock  proprietor  to  hope  for.  Nor  is  it 
necessary  to  this  result  that  all  the  Board  of  Di- 
rectors are  unfaithful  to  their  trust.  A  clique  of 
three  or  four  out  of  a  dozen  directors  may  so 
manage  that  their  associates  will  be  kept  mainly  in 
the  dark,  and  if  any  hitherto  confiding  member 
should  chance  to  get  his  eye  on  some  suspicious 
matter,  and  venture  to  press  inquiry  too  close  for 
the  ruling  party,  he  is  soon  branded  as  an  old 
fogy,  quite  behind  the  times,  and  his  unsuspecting 
colleagues  will  learn  that  he  is  impracticable  and 
cannot  comprehend  the  age,  or  their  business,  and 
if  he  continue  to  be  troublesome,  he  must  give 
place  at  a  future  election  for  a  successor  more  easily 
controlled.  On  the  other  hand,  if  there  be  three  or 
four  good  men  in  a  Board  of  Directors,  who  take 
active  interest  in  the  affairs  at  the  outset,  with  a 
President  as  the  executive  head  who  has  the  neces- 
sary capacity  and  fidelity,  they  will  most  likely 
conduct  the  management  beneficially  for  the  pro- 
prietary interest.  There  are  usually  several  inern- 
14* 


322  RAILWAY   PROPERTY. 

bers  in  a  board  of  this  kind  who  institute  very  little 
scrutiny  into  business,  and  generally  act  without 
much  question  on  the  measures  proposed  by  the 
ruling  party.  If  these  latter  are  fair  men,  they 
will  respond  to  the  arguments  that  aim  to  promote 
the  interest  of  the  institution  ;  and  under  the  lead 
of  the  President  and  three  or  four  correct  men,  who 
carefully  explore  affairs,  there  will  usually  be  little 
danger  to  apprehend  from  a  speculating  clique, 
and  this  organization  may  practically  be  equivalent 
to  a  good  Board  of  Directors,  even  if  there  be 
several  speculating  men  among  them.  But  it  is 
best  to  keep  clear  of  the  latter  class,  as  their  per- 
sonal schemes  will  ever  require  watching,  to  prevent 
the  indirect  waste  of  the  resources  of  the  company. 
It  is  moreover  hazardous,  as  competent  and  upright 
men  who  may  be  elected,  perhaps  with  the  sole 
view  of  giving  character  to  the  institution,  do  not 
always  expect  to  give  special  attention,  and  may 
not  be  aware  that  the  board  has  members  that 
require  watching,  and  therefore  the  safe  policy  is  to 
secure  a  full  board  of  good  men,  who  will  uprightly 
pursue  a  policy  designed  to  promote  the  interest  of 
the  institution. 

It  is  not  generally  expected  that  all  the  members 
of  a  Board  of  Directors  will  examine  with  particular 
care  the  detail  of  affairs ;  this  is  left  to  certain  men 


GENERAL   REMARKS.  323 

who  are  relied  upon  to  do  such  duty,  and  more 
particularly  to  the  President,  who  should  be  the 
executive  head  of  the  company,  and  on  whose 
fidelity  and  capacity  the  prosperity  of  the  institu- 
tion will  in  a  great  measure  depend.  At  the  same 
time  it  is  very  important  for  him  to  be  supported 
by  intelligent  and  upright  associates  in  the  board, 
or  there  will  be  danger  that  he  may  be  baffled  by 
adverse  interests,  and  though  holding  a  position  of 
ostensible  responsibility,  his  plans  may  be  defeated 
by  various  misrepresentations  and  stratagems,  that 
for  a  time  he  may  not  suspect,  nor  until  their 
development  will  it  appear  that  his  position  is  only 
nominal,  and  that  he  does  not  possess  the  pow^r  to 
make  himself  useful  to  the  proprietors. 

If  an  institution  of  this  kind  is  so  unfortunate  as 
to  have  in  their  Board  of  Managers  a  clique  who 
aim  to  make  it  subservient  to  their  individual  rather 
than  the  proprietary  interest,  it  is  likely  that  they 
will  contrive  to  get  the  finances  under  their  control, 
and  place  the  various  departments  of  business  in 
the  hands  of  their  relatives,  or  other  personal 
friends,  who  will  understand  just  how  far  they 
may  go  in  carrying  out  the  purpose  of  the  Presi- 
dent, or  party  opposed  to  their  proceedings.  Mea- 
sures adverse  to  the  proprietary  interest,  if  there  be 
one  or  more  persons  in  the  Board  who  aim  to  be 


324  RAILWAY   PROPERTY. 

faithful  to  their  trust,  will  not  probably  be  at  first 
manifest.  They  will  proceed  gradually,  and  perhaps 
quiet  some  unsuspecting  member,  that  otherwise 
might  not  look  on  with  indifference, by  a  bit  of  what 
he  may  suppose  a  harmless  realization  in  some 
projected  operation,  ostensibly  of  fair  business  as- 
pect ;  and  it  is  surprising  how  many  men  of  fair 
standing  among  their  neighbors  allow  in  this  way 
an  embargo  on  their  actions  until  too  late  to  remedy 
the  evil,  and  so  the  mischief  is  fastened  hopelessly 
on  the  interests  of  the  proprietors. 

It  has  been  suggested  that  men  who  aim  to 
manage  affairs  of  trust  for  their  individual,  rather 
than  the  proprietary  benefit,  are  not  likely,  and 
indeed  are  not  generally  good  business  managers, 
and  fail  to  make  the  business  of  the  institution  as 
profitable  as  it  should  be.  On  this  point  it  may  be 
set  down  as  a  rule,  that  it  is  not  usually  their  in- 
terest to  have  in  their  service  a  very  scrupulous 
body  of  agents ;  but  rather  their  personal  friends, 
who  will,  from  affinity  and  interest,  be  well  dis- 
posed to  carry  out  their  wishes,  as  more  important 
than  a  competent  and  faithful  discharge  of  their 
respective  duties.  In  this  respect,  family  connec- 
tions are  likely  to  be  sought,  as  more  confidential 
and  reliable  for  their  purpose,  and  also  from  a  dis- 
position to  pension  on  the  institution  members  of 


GENERAL    REMARKS.  325 

the  family,  who  may  not  be  able  to  otherwise  pro- 
vide for  their  support.  This  sort  of  management  is 
destructive  of  discipline,  of  honorable  emulation 
among  other  employees,  and  all  generous  zeal  for 
the  interest  of  the  Institution.  It  is  not  necessary 
to  be  exclusive  on  this  point,  for  there  are,  no 
doubt,  cases  where  a  relative  may  be  advantageously 
placed  in  position  of  more  or  less  responsibility ; 
but  it  should  only  be  done  where  there  are  mani- 
fest qualifications,  namely  :  a  good  knowledge  of 
the  duties  to  be  performed,  practical  sound  sense, 
that  will  fully  meet  every  question  of  discipline, 
and  vigilant  application  and  fidelity  in  the  dis- 
charge of  every  duty.  The  reverse  is  the  more 
general  result  of  this  application  of  patronage. 
Men  occupying  positions  through  the  influence  of 
friends  in  power,  are  likely  to  depend  on  such  in- 
fluence rather  than  on  a  proper  discharge  of  duty, 
and  are  often  prone  to  assume  a  consequence  sub- 
versive of  the  discipline,  harmony,  and  efficiency 
of  business.  The  evils  of  nepotism  have  usually 
been  mischievous  to  railway  institutions,  and  any 
indulgence  in  this  sort  of  patronage  should  be 
looked  to  with  the  most  rigid  caution,  as  it  is  most 
probable  that  managers  and  general  officers  who 
adopt  it  are  not  particularly  scrupulous  for  the  in- 
terest of  the  proprietors. 


326  RAILWAY   PKOrEETY. 

To  further  schemes  of  speculation,  it  is  often  re-  * 
garded  important  to  show  statements  of  large  gross ^ 
receipts.  To  effect  this,  rival  lines  reduce  rates 
below  a  compensating  tariff,  incur  large  expenses 
for  agencies,  many  of  them  of  loose  and  irrespon- 
sible character,  and  wear  out  the  rails  and  ma- 
chinery to  keep  up  a  delusion  that  can  only  result 
in  eventual  damage  to  the  proprietors,  though  for  a 
time  screened  from  their  view  by  a  free  use  of  that 
absorbing  and  ruinous  abyss,  the  construction  ac- 
count. 

Branch  lines  are  expensive  means  of  forming  con- 
nections with  other  railways,  and  have  often  proved 
very  useful  to  some  parties  in  the  management, 
while  they  have  been  more  or  less  injurious  to  the 
interest  of  the  proprietors.  There  are,  doubtless, 
cases  where  proceedings  of  this  kind  have  proved 
beneficial  to  the  interest  of  the  main  line ;  but  ex- 
perience in  this  and  other  countries  has  shown  that 
local  interests,  contractors,  and  jobbing  managers 
are  the  parties  most  usually  benefited,  while  pro- 
bably, in  nine  cases  out  of  ten,  the  proprietors  of 
the  main  line  have  suffered  loss.  It  should  be 
borne  in  mind  that  there  are  very  few  branches 
that  can  pay,  either  directly  or  indirectly,  for  their 
cost.  It  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  operations  of 
this  kind  are  in  all  cases  chargeable  to  dishonest 


GENERAL    REMARKS.  327 

management ;  they  are  no  doubt  entered  upon,  in 
some  instances,  in  the  honest  expectation  of  pro- 
moting the  prosperity  of  the  institution ;  but  they 
are  very  liable  to  be  the  occasion  of  a  different 
purpose,  and  therefore,  any  proposition  of  the  kind 
should  be  thoroughly  investigated  by  the  directors 
before  they  are  committed  to  the  expenditure.  In 
this  matter  they  will  meet  with  many  plausible 
representations,  both  in  regard  to  branches  and 
aid  to  extending  ^.rxes,  from  parties  interested  in 
their  advancement.  These  parties  will  generally 
have,  or  claim  to  have,  ample  local  information  as 
to  facts  and  estimates,  and  consequently  an  advan- 
tage over  others  in  the  argument,  and  the  only 
safety  is  in  taking  full  time  to  consider  and  scru- 
tinize all  questions  involved  in  the  proposition. 
Delay  is  generally  the  prudent  course,  and  the  dis- 
aster that  has  so  generally  followed  this  policy 
should  certainly  be  sufficient  to  protect  against 
hasty  action,  or  until  after  the  most  careful  con- 
sideration of  all  the  circumstances  of  the  case,  that 
may  bear  on  the  interest  of  the  institution. 

It  is  sometimes  very  boldly  and  plausibly  urged, 
that  directors  should  have  a  large  interest  in  the 
stock  of  the  company,  as  an  inducement  to  give  close 
attention  to  their  duties ;  and  no  doubt  this  is  an 
important  consideration.  Directors  usually  receive 


328  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

little  or  no  compensation  for  their  services,  and  if 
they  have  but  a  small  proprietary  interest,  there  is 
not  an  object  of  sufficient  importance  to  induce  much 
attention.  Some  directors,  having  very  little  pri- 
vate occupation,  accept  a  seat  in  a  Board,  as  a 
means  of  social  intercourse,  or  of  honorable  trust, 
and  do  not  expect  much  labor.  Others,  with  more 
or  less  of  proprietary  interest,  are  men  very  much 
absorbed  in  their  private  business,  and  are  restless 
every  moment  they  are  occupied  in  their  duties  as 
directors,  and  do  scarcely  more  than  to  vote,  or 
approve  of  whatever  is  laid  before  them.  With  a 
large  pecuniary  interest  in  the  institution,  it  is 
reasonable  to  expect  a  more  close  attention;  but 
this  of  itself  is  not  sufficient  to  protect  other  stock- 
holders, and  it  is  indispensable  to  their  safety,  that 
the  directors  be  not  only  capable,  but  upright  men, 
who,  in  looking  after  their  own  interest,  will  do  so 
with  strict  reference  to  that  of  all  other  proprietors ; 
and  it  should  not  be  forgotten,  that  a  director  with 
a  large  stock  interest,  may  also  have  other  large 
interests  to  be  affected  by  the  operations  of  the 
company,  or  plans  of  speculation  that  intensify  his 
other  interests  in  such  a  degree,  that  his  proprietary 
interest  in  the  institution  may  be  quite  secondary. 

In  many  cases  it  is  no  doubt  a  difficult  thing  for 
the  proprietors,  who  find  their  affairs  in  the  hands 


GENERAL    REMARKS.  329 

of  a  board  of  doubtful  integrity,  to  elect  a  good  and 
reliable  board  in  their  stead.  Whether  this  is  more 
difficult  now  than  it  was  formerly,  it  is  not  neces- 
sary in  this  place  to  discuss.  It  may  be  stated  as  a 
general  principle,  that  the  successful  management 
of  all  joint  stock  property  requires  a  high  degree  of 
civilization ;  and  this  is  peculiarly  the  case  in  rail- 
way institutions  so  situated  as  to  require  large 
capital  and  numerous  proprietors,  mostly  strangers 
to  each  other,  and  to  the  detail  of  their  aifairs.  It 
is  apparent  that  the  management  of  their  affairs  is 
eminently  a  matter  of  trust,  affording  very  little 
opportunity  for  an  intelligent  scrutiny.  Adequate 
capacity  for  administration  and  fidelity  to  so  impor- 
tant a  duty,  can  only  be  expected  to  result  from  a  high 
civilization,  in  which  a  conscientious  sense  of  right 
will  constitute  enjoyment  far  outweighing  that  of  any 
gains  secured  at  the  expense  of  dishonest  proceeding. 
It  is  a  question  of  grave  import,  whether  our 
civilization  has  reached  that  degree  that  can  give 
reasonable  confidence  in  this  kind  of  property,  espe- 
cially to  small  proprietors.  No  doubt  it  will  be 
claimed  that  it  has.  It  can  hardly  be  expected 
that  the  now  numerous  class  who  occupy  these 
places  of  trust,  will  acknowledge  any  deficiency, 
and  though  there  are  doubtless  many  upright  men 
in  such  positions,  there  is  still  no  room  to  doubt 


330  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

that  the  railway  interest,  both  in  this  and  other 
countries,  has  largely  suffered  from  the  low  standard 
of  civilization  prevailing  with  both  them  and  us. 

The  management  of  an  important  railway  involves 
arduous  and  responsible  duties,  calling  for  large 
business  experience  and  qualifications  in  judging 
of  men  and  things,  and  the  most  competent  and 
upright  directors  will  find  ample  scope  for  the 
exercise  of  their  best  faculties.  With  the  most 
upright  intentions  they  will  probably  commit  some 
errors.  The  first  and  most  important  duty  is,  to 
select  from  their  number  a  man  to  preside  over 
their  deliberations,  and  to  take  the  administrative 
charge  of  the  executive  department  of  the  affairs  of 
the  institution.  It  is  the  most  usual  course  in  the 
election  of  a  Board  of  Directors  to  have  in  view  one 
of  the  number  for  this  position.  Upon  this  officer, 
as  before  observed,  the  prosperity  of  the  institution 
will  greatly  depend:  not,  however,  as  is  often 
supposed,  by  his  vigilance  and  "attention  to  mere 
details — though  on  a  short  and  unimportant  railway 
he  may  consistently  give  much  attention  to  details, 
and  perhaps  save  the  duty  and  expense  of  some- 
other  agent — but  on  what  may  be  termed  important 
railways,  his  attention  should  be  directed  to  the 
general  interest?  of  the  institution,  and  especially  to 
Bee  that  ne  nas  3ver  each  department  of  service 


GENERAL    REMARKS.  331 

men  competent  and  faithful  to  carry  out  in  the 
most  efficient  manner  their  respective  duties.  It  is 
in  this  last  duty  that  he  will  find  the  most  important 
field  for  his  care  and  vigilance  j  and  all  his  exam- 
ination of  details  should  be  with  reference  to  know 
how  far  he  has  been  successful  in  this  feature  of  his 
administration.  Here  lies  the  foundation  of  sound 
railway  management.  In  the  varied  and  numerous 
matters  involved,  it  is  idle  for  the  chief  executive 
officer  to  attempt  much  personal  knowledge  of  de- 
tails, and  in  devoting  himself  to  these,  except  on 
occasion  of  special  examination  in  reference  to  the 
duties  of  subordinates,  or  as  they  come  incidentally, 
or  by  complaint  to  his  notice,  he  will  probably 
neglect  his  more  appropriate  and  important  duties. 
It  is  not  usual  for  the  President  to  have  an  edu- 
cation which  prepares  him  for  his  position,  and  he 
must  be  more  or  less  embarrassed  in  many  of  his 
duties,  particularly  in  making  his  selections  of  men 
for  the  charge  of  subordinate  departments.  He 
will  be  compelled  to  depend  more  or  less  on  the 
recommendations  of  others,  and  these,  even  though 
well  intended,  are  often  much  at  fault,  and  lead  to 
the  appointment  perhaps  of  respectable,  at  the  same 
time  unsuitable,  men.  Desirable  as  it  is  that  the 
President  should  have  a  good  knowledge  of  what  is 
essential  in  every  branch  of  the  service  he  superin- 


332  RAILWAY    PEOPERTT. 

tends,  it  is  not  often  that  this  is  secured,  though 
high,  and  sometimes  extravagant,  compensation  is 
paid  to  obtain  it ;  and  in  this,  as  in  other  depart- 
ments, a  liberal  salary  is  sure  to  obtain  an  incum- 
bent, but  not  always  the  qualifications  essential  to 
the  prope^  discharge  of  the  duties  required.     The 
man,  however,  who  is  well  fitted  for  the  station,  is 
cheap  for  the  proprietors  at  any  reasonable  salary ; 
and  the  unremitting  cares  that  will  press  upon  his 
attention,  insure  his  bread  from  the  sweat  of  his 
brow.     His   first   duty  will  be  to  present  to  his 
Board  for   appointment   as  heads   of  the   several 
departments,  men  who  have  education  in  the  dif- 
ferent branches  of  service  to  be  provided  for.     His 
talent  as  a  business  man  will  be  amply  proved  in 
the  discharge  of  this  duty.     If  by  indiscretion — 
petty  jealousy — superficial  examination  or  partiality 
ior  personal  friends,  he  makes  bad  selections,  the 
proprietary  interest  must  suffer ;  and  on  the  other 
hand,  if  he  proves  himself  a  discreet  man,  with  an 
eye  single  to  the  prosperity  of  the  institution,  hav- 
ing a  frank  and  high-minded  sense  of  duty,  well 
experienced  in  the  affairs  he  has  assumed  to  manage, 
and  no  fear  of  rivals,  rising  from  superior  capacity, 
among  his  subordinates,  he  will  gather  around  him 
a  class  of  men  that  will  produce  order,  regularity 
and  efficiency   through   every   department  of  the 


GENERAL   EEMARK8.  333 

business  of  the  institution.  He  may  not  succeed 
fully  in  the  outset  of  his  engagement,  but  he  will 
ultimately  produce  the  most  favorable  manage- 
ment. 

Railways  must  generally  be  joint  stock  property, 
and  from  the  impracticability  of  conducting  the 
business  in  any  other  way,  the  power  of  manage- 
ment must  be  delegated  to  a  portion  of  stock  pro- 
prietors. A  short  railway  involving  a  compara- 
tively moderate  amount  of  capital  may  be  controlled 
by  a  small  number  of  men,  who  may  be  residents 
in  the  vicinity,  familiar  with  each  other,  and  so 
situated  as  to  have  cognizance  of  much  of  its  opera- 
tions, and  be  able  to  discuss  intelligently  its  doings 
and  its  business ;  and  by  personal  attendance  at 
annual  meetings,  investigate  its  management,  and 
judge  whether  their  influence  and  votes  should  be 
given  to  sustain,  or  to  change  the  directors.  Under 
these  circumstances  the  railway  is  situated  like 
much  other  joint  stock  property,  where  the  limited 
character  of  operations  renders  it  practicable  to  insti- 
tute scrutiny  into  the  administration  of  affairs. 
This  will  be  the  case  with  railways  of  moderate 
extent,  and  with  the  proprietors  mostly  residents 
on  or  near  its  line ;  but  our  most  important  lines 
are  not  often  under  so  favorable  cognizance,  and  in 
many  cases  the  proprietors  are  so  distant  from  the 


034:  RAILWAY   PROPERTY. 

location  and  business  of  ti  eir  property,  and  so  little 
acquainted  with  each  other,  that  they  have  little 
opportunity  to  know  the  details  of  their  affairs,  and 
scarcely  pretend  to  any  personal  effort,  beyond 
that  of  sending  their  proxy  to  such  party  in  the 
management  as  may  solicit  it,  with  envelope 
stamped  and  directed  for  return  at  the  least  pos- 
sible care  and  expense.  It  is  not,  as  before 
observed,  until  dividends  of  profits  fail,  that  pro- 
prietors begin  to  inquire  into  the  management. 
If  a  single  proprietor,  or  a  number  residing  in  the 
same  vicinity,  obtain  the  impression  that  their 
affairs  are  not  well  conducted,  they  seldom  put 
forth  any  efficient  proceedings  for  correction. 
Their  comparatively  small  interest  impresses  on 
their  minds  the  impotency  of  any  effort  they  may 
make  to  produce  a  desired  change  of  administra- 
tion, and  they  usually  submit  to  the  loss,  holding 
on,  in  the  hope  of  better  prospects,  or  selling  out 
their  interest  at  whatever  the  market  will  give. 

If  property  in  railways  was  generally  held  by 
men  of  higher  wealth,  and  holding  large  interest  in 
the  property,  there  would  be  more  practicability  in 
efforts  for  any  needed  reform.  This,  however,  is 
not  generally  the  case ;  for  the  alluring  prospects 
that  have  been  held  out  by  some  very  prosperous 
investments  of  this  kind,  on  railways  that,  with  a 


GENERAL   REMARKS.  335 

good  traffic,  have  been  well  conducted,  ai^d  by 
insnaring  dividends  paid  by  others,  have  induced 
many  to  invest  their  small  means  in  this  kind  of 
property,  into  which  the  more  wary  capitalist  has 
seldom  intrusted  his  funds ;  and  consequently  the 
proprietors  are  numerous,  and  not  often  able  to 
effect  that  concert  of  action  so  necessary  to  produce 
any  desirable  change.  At  first  blush,  it  seems 
very  proper  and  practicable  for  dissatisfied  proprie- 
tors to  make  a  change  that  appears  necessary  to 
secure  their  interest;  but  on  reflection  it  will  ap- 
pear that  a  concentration  sufficient  in  most  cases 
to  accomplish  the  object,  will  involve  so  much 
time,  labor,  and  expense,  that  few  will  be  found 
willing  to  undertake  it ;  and  as  before  remarked, 
the  security  of  good  management  for  this  kind  of 
property  will,  in  most  cases,  be  dependent  on  the 
election,  in  the  first  organization,  of  a  competent 
and  faithful  Board  of  Directors,  who  will  be  dis- 
posed to  give  the  attention  required  for  the  faithful 
and  efficient  conduct  of  the  affairs  of  the  insti- 
tution. In  the  event  of  bad  management,  under 
the  circumstances  above  alluded  to,  if  the  property 
does  riot  go  into  the  hands  of  the  bond  proprietors, 
it  is  probable  the  stock  will  fall  so  low  that  a  IV' w 
capitalists  may  combine  to  purchase  it,  or  so  much 
as  may  enable  them  to  control  it,  and  will  have  no 


336  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

difficulty  in  controlling  the  election  and  conse- 
quently the  management ;  and  if  the  railway  has 
merits  to  induce  such  purchase,  it  will  be  likely 
to  assume  a  new  aspect,  and  may  become  a  very 
useful  institution  for  the  trade  of  the  district,  and 
very  remunerating  to  the  new  proprietors,  and 
prove  to  be  the  best  result  for  those  of  the  old,  who 
had  not  parted  with  their  iiuerest. 

The  fact  is  to  be  deplored,  that  men  appointed  to 
these  high  and  honorable  trusts — trusts  involving 
the  public  welfare,  and  especially  the  interests  of  nu- 
merous confiding  proprietors — should  use  the  influ- 
ence and  power  committed  to  their  fidelity,  to  ad- 
vance their  personal  interests  and  that  of  their  per- 
sonal friends.  This  has  not  arisen  from  the  want 
of  competent  and  faithful  men  in  the  community, 
for  some  institutions  of  this  kind  have  been  faith- 
fully conducted,  and  the  proprietors  and  the  public 
have  had  little  reason  to  complain.  It  has  rather, 
and  in  the  main,  resulted  from  the  opportunity 
aiforded  by  a  numerous  constituency,  for  improper 
men  to  gain  the  control.  That  this  is  a  difficulty  in 
this  class  of  property  cannot  be  disputed,  and  no 
doubt  it  has  been  greatly  aggravated  by  the  zeal 
with  which  men  of  moderate  means  have  sought 
this  source  of  investment,  under  the  impression  that 
they  would  secure  a  large  rate  of  income,  with  110 


GENERAL   BEMARKS.  337 

trouble  or  care  to  manage  the  property.  But  it  did 
not  occur  to  them,  that  men  of  fair  standing  in  the 
business  world,  might  not  have  the  virtue  to  resist 
temptation  ;  and,  perhaps  with  small  beginnings,  the 
unfaithful  manager  goes  on  from  step  to  step,  in  a 
more  or  less  rapid  depletion,  until  the  ruin  of  his 
property  stares  the  hitherto  confiding  stockholder 
in  the  face.  On  the  other  hand,  when  this  class  of 
investers  have  fallen  into  good  hands,  they  have, 
for  the  most  part,  according  to  the  productiveness 
of  the  traffic  of  the  line,  been  well  cared  for,  and 
the  income  of  their  small  property  has  been  faith- 
fully handed  over,  with  small  care  or  trouble  en 
their  part,  and  after  years  have  rolled  by,  they  find 
their  property  affording  unimpaired  income. 

Notwithstanding  these  favorable  instances,  the 
railway  business,  in  all  its  aspects,  can  hardly  be 
said  to  be  a  judicious  source  of  investment  for  small 
means,  where  the  individual  proprietor  must  be 
mainly  dependent  on  his  faith,  for  any  views  he 
may  have  of  the  interior  of  his  affairs,  and  quite 
impotent  to  effect  any  correction  in  the  event  of 
mal-administration.  Yet,  strange  as  it  may  appear, 
of  the  large  amount  of  capital  that  has  gone  into 
our  railways,  and  especially  for  those  that  have 
turned  out  bad,  a  very  great  proportion  has  been 
furnished  by  small  subscribers.  The  shrewd  capi- 

15 


338  RAILWAY    PROPERTY. 

talist  has  wanted  confidence  in  the  strength  of  the 
traffic  to  afford  adequate  compensation,  or  he  has 
had  doubts  as  to  the  capacity  or  integrity  of  the 
men  whom  he  sees  in,  or  likely  to  be  in,  the  control 
of  affairs ;  and  therefore  holds  back  on  the  stock 
subscription,  and  waits  for  the  issue  of  bonds.  In 
the  latter  he  is  not  so  reserved — regarding  the  stock 
as  adequate  protection,  he  considers  his  security  to 
be  good ;  though  the  developments  of  a  few  years 
past  have  very  much  shaken  the  confidence  that 
heretofore  existed  in  this  branch  of  security. 

But  whatever  may  have  been  the  character  of 
the  capitalists  that  have  hitherto  furnished  funds  for 
the  railways,  there  can  be  little  doubt,  those  that 
have  been  broken  down  by  mismanagement,  as  be- 
fore observed,  will  eventually  get  into  the  hands  of 
a  comparatively  small  number  of  proprietors,  who, 
by  more  faithful  and  efficient  supervision,  will  be 
likely  to  make  them  subserve  the  great  interest  for 
which  they  were  instituted.  Railways  of  reasona- 
ble traffic,  managed  with  skill  and  fidelity,  and  in 
gome  instances  those  for  a  time  ill-managed,  but 
having  the  mass  of  proprietors  in  near  proximity, 
and  able  to  cooperate  effectively  in  promoting  any 
desired  change,  will  escape  this  result,  and  in  some 
cases  improve  in  productiveness.  It  cannot,  how- 
ever, be  regarded  safe  for  a  stock  proprietor  to  sit 


GENERA!    REMARKS.  339 

down  and  fold  his  hands ;  he  must  exercise  the 
same  care  and  watchfulness  that  is  required  in  the 
successful  management  of  all  property,  being  cau- 
tious as  to  whose  hands  he  commits  his  trust. 

Our  railways  are,  in  the  main,  good  property, 
though  too  much  multiplied  in  some  localities,  and 
are  worth  what  they  have  actually  cost  in  cash,  the 
depreciation  is  principally  owing  to  a  want  of  capa- 
city and  fidelity  in  their  management,  and  where  it 
may  be  practicable  to  correct  this  evil,  they  will  for 
the  most  part  be  fairly  remunerating  to  the  propri- 
etors, though  the  losses  by  the  depletion  through 
mal-administration  may  not  be  restored. 

In  view  of  the  history  of  railway  management, 
and  of  the  vast  importance  of  this  kind  of  improve- 
ment, to  the  commercial,  social  and  political  inte- 
rests of  the  country,  it  is  humiliating,  and  deeply 
to  be  regretted,  that  so  great  a  want  of  high  minded 
fidelity  should  have  been  manifested  in  the  admin 
istration  of  many  of  these  works  ;  so  depleting  the 
stock  interest  as  in  a  great  measure  to  destroy  con- 
fidence in  investments  necessary  to  any  further 
prosecution  of  enterprises  so  eminently  characteriz- 
ing the  progress  of  our  age. 

Though  it  is  small  consolation  to  the  stock  pro- 
prietor, who  has  felt  the  loss  of  income,  that  could 
be  ill  spared  as  a  means  to  meet  his  current  neces- 


340  RAILWAY   PROPERTY. 

si  ties,  the  railways,  even  those  badly  managed, 
have  very  largely  contributed  to  advance  the  facili- 
ties of  intercourse,  and  to  increase  the  general 
prosperity  of  the  country ;  and  this  much  beyond 
the  loss  that  unprincipled  and  incompetent  admin- 
istration has  wrested  from  the  hard  earnings  and 
frugal  savings  of  a  great  number  of  small,  and  of 
some  large  proprietors.  We  can  hope  for  amend- 
ment, as  before  intimated,  only  in  the  improvement 
of  our  civilization,  from  which  men  will  come  to 
regard  the  honorable  discharge  of  a  trust  as  more 
to  be  esteemed  and  valued  than  any  mass  of  ill-got- 
ten and  unjust  gains,  however  the  latter  may  be 
covered  over  by  cunning  craft.  "When  the  commu- 
nity come  to  look  on  the  two  classes,  in  the  true 
light  of  their  respective  characters,  railway  pro- 
perty will  be  held  with  more  confidence. 

Have  I  been  too  severe  on  unfaithful  manage- 
ment? I  hope  no  upright  managers  have  been 
wounded  by  anything  I  have  said,  for  all  of  this 
class  I  highly  appreciate,  and  have  endeavored  to 
keep  this  distinction  clear.  But  from  the  nature  of 
the  trust — the  necessity  of  confidence  in  councils, 
and  transactions  that  cannot  be  seen — the  great 
interest  of  the  proprietors  and  the  public  in  good 
and  faithful  managers — and  the  loose  degree  of 
morality  that  has  been  so  developed  in  many  cases, 


GENERAL   REMARKS.  341 

as  manifestly  to  destroy  confidence  in  a  great  de- 
gree, have  demanded,  that  while  the  evil  should  be 
discussed  dispassionately,  it  should  be  candidly  and 
fully  exposed.  I  do  not  feel  conscious  of  having 
done  any  injustice,  and  have  simply  aimed  to  put 
proprietors  on  their  guard,  in  reference  to  the  man- 
agement of  their  property,  and  the  circumstances 
that  tend  to  its  destruction. 


THE     END. 


OJLTJLLOO-TJB 

OF 


practical  and  {Scientific 

PUBLISHED  BY 

HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  Co. 


INDUSTRIAL  PUBLISHERS,  BOOKSELLERS  AND  IMPORTERS, 

810  Walnut  Street,  Philadelphia. 


49~  Any  of  the  Books  comprised  in  this  Catalogue  will  be  sent  by  mail,  fre«  of 
postage,  to  any  address  in  the  world,  at  the  publication  prices, 

43"  A  Descriptive  Catalogue,  84  pages,  8vo.,  will  be  sent  free  and  free  of  postage, 
to  any  one  in  any  part  of  the  world,  who  will  furnish  his  address, 

*f  Where  not  otherwise  stated,  all  of  the  Books  in  this  Catalogue  are  bound 
in  muslin, 


AMATEUR  MECHANICS'  WORKSHOP: 

A  treatise  containing  plain  and  concise  directions  for  the  manipula- 
tion of  Wood  and  Metals,  including  Casting,  Forging,  Brazing, 
Soldering  and  Carpentry.  By  the  author  of  the  "  Lathe  and  Its 
Uses."  Seventh  edition.  Illustrated.  SYO.  .  .  .  $3.00 

ANDRES.— A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Fabrication  of  Volatile 
and  Fat  Varnishes,  Lacquers,  Siccatives  and  Sealing 
Waxes. 

From  the  German  of  ERWIN  ANDRES,  Manufacturer  of  Varnishes 
and  Lacquers.  With  additions  on  the  Manufacture  and  Application 
of  Varnishes,  Stains  for  Wood,  Horn,  Ivory,  Bone  and  Leather. 
From  the  German  of  DR.  EMIL  WINCKLER  and  Louis  E.  ANDES. 
The  whole  translated  and  edited  by  WILLIAM  T.  BRANNT.  With  n 
illustrations.  I2mo.  .  $2.50 

ARLOT. — A  Complete  Guide  for  Coach  Painters : 

Translated  from  the  French  of  M.  ARLOT,  Coach  Painter;  for 
eleven  years  Foreman  of  Painting  to  M.  Eherler,  Coach  Maker, 
Paris.  By  A.  A.  FESQUET,  Chemist  and  Engineer.  To  which  is 
added  an  Appendix,  containing  Information  respecting  the  Matetiak 
and  the  Practice  of  Coach  and  Car  Painting  and  Varnishing  in  the 
United  States  and  Great  Britain.  I2mo.  .  ,  .  #1.25 

(0 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 


ARMENGAUD,  AMOROUX,  AND  JOHNSON.— The  Practi 
cal  Draughtsman's  Book  of  Industrial  Design,  and  Ma- 
chinist's and  Engineer's  Drawing  Companion : 
Forming  a  Complete  Course  of  Mechanical  Engineering  and  Archi- 
tectural Drawing.  From  the  French  of  M.  Armengaud  the  elder, 
Prof,  of  Design  in  the  Conservatoire  of  Arts  and  Industry,  Paris,  and 
MM.  Armengaud  the  younger,  and  Amoroux,  Civil  Engineers.  Re- 
written and  arranged  with  additional  matter  and  plates,  selections  from 
and  examples  of  the  most  useful  and  generally  employed  mechanism 
of  the  day.  By  WILLIAM  JOHNSON,  Assoc.  Inst.  C.  E.  Illustrated 
by  fifty  folio  steel  plates,  and  fifty  wood-cuts.  A  new  edition,  410., 

half  morocco $10.00 

ARMSTRONG.— The  Construction  and  Management  of  Steam 

Boilers : 

By  R.  ARMSTRONG,  C.  E.  With  an  Appendix  by  ROBERT  MALLET, 
C.  E.,  F.  R.  S.  Seventh  Edition.  Illustrated.  I  vol.  I2mo.  75 

ARROWSMITH. — Paper-Hanger's  Companion : 

A  Treatise  in  which  the  Practical  Operations  of  the  Trade  are 
Systematically  laid  down :  with  Copious  Directions  Preparatory  to 
Papering;  Preventives  against  the  Effect  of  Damp  on  Walls;  the 
various  Cements  and  Pastes  Adapted  to  the  Several  Purposes  of 
the  Trade;  Observations  and  Directions  for  the  Panelling  and 
Ornamenting  of  Rooms,  etc.  By  JAMES  ARROWSMITH.  I2mo., 
cloth  ...'..  .  .  .  .  .  £1.25 

ASHTON. — The  Theory  and  Practice  of  the  Art  of  Designing 
Fancy  Cotton  and  Woollen  Cloths  from  Sample : 

Giving  full  instructions  for  reducing  drafts,  as  well  as  the  methods  of 
spooling  and  making  out  harness  for  cross  drafts  and  finding  any  re- 
quired reed;  with  calculations  and  tables  of  yarn.  By  FREDERIC  T. 
ASHTON,  Designer,  West  Pittsfield,  Mass.  With  fifty-two  illustrations. 
One  vol.  folio $10.00 

AUERBACH— CROOKES.— Anthracen : 

Its  Constitution,  Properties,  Manufacture  and  Derivatives,  including 
Artificial  Alizarin,  Anthrapurpurin,  etc.,  with  their  applications  in 
Dyeing  and  Printing.  By  G.  AUERRACH.  Translated  and  ediied 
fiom  the  revised  manuscript  of  the  Author,  by  WM.  CROOKES,  F.  R. 
S.,  Vice-President  of  the  Chemical  Society.  8vo.  .  .  $5.00 

3AIRD. — Miscellaneous     Papers     on     Economic     Questions. 
By  Henry  Carey  Baird.     {In  preparation.} 

BAIRD. — The  American  Cotton  Spinner,  and  Manager's  a^d 

Carder's  C?uide: 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  Cotton  Spinning;  giving  the  Dimensions  and 
Speed  of  Machinery,  Draught  and  Twist  Calculations,  etc. ;  with 
notices  of  recent  Improvements:  together  with  Rules  and  Examples 
ibr  making  changes  in  the  sizes  and  numbers  of  Roving  and  Yarn. 
Compiled  from  the  papers  of  the  late  ROBERT  H.  BAIRD.  121110. 

#1-5° 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 


BAIRD. — Standard  Wages  Computing  Tables  : 

An  Improvement  in  all  former  Methods  of  Computation,  so  arranged 
that  wages  for  days,  hours,  or  fractions  of  hours,  at  a  specified  rate 
per  day  or  hour,  may  be  ascertained  at  a  glance.  By  T.  SPANGLER 
BAIRD.  Oblong  folio $5.00 

BAKER.— Long-Span  Railway  Bridges  : 

Comprising  Investigations  of  the  Comparative  Theoretical  and 
Practical  Advantages  of  the  various  Adopted  or  Proposed  Type 
Systems  of  Construction;  with  numerous  Formulae  and  Tables.  By 
B.  BAKER.  i2mo.  $1.50 

BAKER.— Th«  Mathematical  Theory  of  the  Steam-Engine : 
With  Rules  at  length,  and  Examples  worked  out  for  the  use  of 
Practical   Men.     By  T.   BAKER,   C.   E.,  with  numerous  Diagrams. 
Sixth  Edition,  Revised  by  Prof.  J.  R.  YOUNG.     I2mo.         .  75 

BARLOW.— The    History    and    Principles    of   Weaving,   by 

Hand  and  by  Power: 

Reprinted,  with  Considerable  Additions,  from  "  Engineering,"  with 
a  chapter  on  Lace-making  Machinery,  reprinted  from  the  Journal  of 
the  "Society  of  Arts."  By  ALFRED  BARLOW.  "With  several  hundred 
illustrations.  8vo.,  443  pages  .....  $10.00 

BARR. — A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Combustion  of  Coal: 
Including  descriptions  of  various  mechanical  devices  for  the  Eco- 
nomic Generation  of  Heat  by  the  Combustion  of  Fuel,  whether  solid, 
liquid  or  gaseous.    8vo.     .......         $2.50 

BARR.— A  Practical  Treatise  on  High  Pressure  Steam  Boilers: 
Including  Results  of  Recent  Experimental  Tests  of  Boiler  Materials, 
together  with  a  Description  of  Approved  Safety  Apparatus,  Steam 
Pumps,  Injectors  and  Economizers  in  actual  use.  By  WM.  M.  BARR. 
204  Illustrations.  8vo $3.00 

BAUERMAN.— A  Treatise  on  the  Metallurgy  of  Iron : 

Containing  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Iron  Manufacture,  Methods  of 
Assay,  and  Analysis  of  Iron  Ores,  Processes  of  Manufacture  of  Iron 
and  Steel,  etc.,  etc.  By  H.  BAUERMAN,  F.  G.  S.,  Associate  of  the 
Royal  School  of  Mines.  Fifth  Edition,  Revised  and  Enjarged. 
Illustrated  with  numerous  Wood  Engravings  from  Drawings  by  J.  B. 
JORDAN.  i2mo .  $2.oc 

BAYLES.— House  Drainage  and  Water  Service ; 

In  Cities,  Villages  and  Rural  Neighborhoods.  "With  Incidental  Con. 
sideration  of  Certain  Causes  Affecting  the  Healthfulness  of  Dwell- 
ings. By  JAMKS  C.  BAYLES,  Editor  of  "  The  Iron  Age  "  and  "  The 
Metalworker."  With  nurnerous  illustrations;  8vo.  cloth,  $3.00 

BEANS.— A   Treatise  on   Railway  Curves    and   Location  of 

Railroads : 
By  E.  W.  BEANS,  C.  E.     Illustrated.     I2mo.     Tucks        .         $1.150 

BECKETT.— A  Rudimentary  Treatise  on  Clocks,  and  Watches 

and  Bells  : 

*  By  Sir  EDMUND  BECKETT,  Bart.,  LL.  D.,  Q.  C.  F.  R.  A.  S.  With 
numerous  illustrations.  Seventh  Edition,  Revised  and  Enlarged. 

$2.25 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 


BELL. — Carpentry  Made  Easy: 

Or,  The  Science  and  Art  of  Framing  on  a  New  and  Improved 
System.  With  Specific  Instructions  for  Building  Balloon  Frames,  Barn 
Frames,  Mill  Frames,  Warehouses,  Church  Spires,  etc.  Comprising 
also  a  System  of  Bridge  Building,  with  Bills,  Estimates  of  Cost,  and 
valuable  Tables.  Illustrated  by  forty-four  plates,  comprising  Dearly 
200  figures.  By  WILLIAM  E.  BELL,  Architect  and  Practical  Builder. 
8vo. $5.00 

BEMROSE. — Fret-Cutting  and  Perforated  Carving: 

With  fifty-three  practical  illustrations.  By  W.  BEMROSE,  JR.  I  vol. 
quarto $3-OO 

BEMROSE. — Manual  of  Buhl-work  and  Marquetry: 

With  Practical  Instructions  for  Learners,  and  ninety  colored  designs. 
By  W.  BEMROSE,  JR.  I  vol.  quarto  ....  $3.00 

BEMROSE. — Manual  of  Wood  Carving: 

With  Practical  Illustrations  for  Learners  of  the  Art,  and  Original  and 
Selected  Designs.  By  WILLIAM  BEMROSE,  JR.  With  an  Intro- 
duction by  LLEWELLYN  JEWITT,  F.  S.  A.,  etc.  With  128  illustra- 
tions, 4to. $3-oo 

BILLINGS.— Tobacco : 

Its  History,  Variety,  Culture,  Manufacture,  Commerce,  and  Various 
Modes  of  Use.  By  E.  R.  BILLINGS.  Illustrated  by  nearly  200 
engravings.  8vo &3-OO 

BIRD. — The  American  Practical  Dyers'  Companion: 

Comprising  a  Description  of  the  Principal  Dye-Stuffs  and  Chemicals 
used  in  Dyeing,  their  Natures  and  Uses ;  Mordants,  and  How  Made ; 
with  the  best  American,  English,  French  and  German  processes  for 
Bleaching  and  Dyeing  Silk,  Wool,  Cotton,  Linen,  Flannel,  Felt, 
Dress  Goods,  Mixed  and  Hosiery  Yarns,  Feathers,  Grass,  Felt,  Fur, 
Wool,  and  Straw  Hats,  Jute  Yarn,  Vegetable  Ivory,  Mats,  Skins, 
Furs,  Leather,  etc.,  etc.  By  Wood,  Aniline,  and  other  Processes, 
together  with  Remarks  on  Finishing  Agents,  and  Instructions  in  the 
Finishing  of  Fabrics,  Substitutes  for  Indigo,  Water- Proofing  of 
Materials,  Tests  and  Purification  of  Water,  Manufacture  of  Aniline 
and  other  New  Dye  Wares,  Harmonizing  Colors,  etc.,  etc. ;  embrac- 
ing in  all  over  800  Receipts  for  Colors  and  Shades,  accompanied  by 
170  Dyed  Samples  of  Raw  Materials  and  Fabrics.  By  F.  J.  BIRD, 
Practical  Dyer,  Author  of  "  The  Dyers'  Hand-Book."  8vo.  $10.00 

BLINN. — A  Practical  Workshop  Companion  for  Tin,  Sheet- 
Iron,  and  Copper-plate  Workers  : 

Containing  Rules  for  describing  various  kinds  of  Patterns  used  by 
Tin,  Sheet-Iron  and  Copper-plate  Workers;  Practical  Geometry; 
Mensuration  of  Surfaces  and  Solids ;  Tables  of  the  Weights  of 
Metals,  Lead-pipe,  etc.;  Tables  of  Areas  and  Circumference* 
of  Circles;  Japan,  Varnishes,  Lackers,  Cements,  Compositions,  etc., 
etc.  By  LEROY  J.  BLINN,  Master  Mechanic.  With  over  One 
Hundred  Illustrations,  i^mo. $2.50 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 


feOOTH.—  Marble  Worker's  Manual: 

Containing  Practical  Information  respecting  Marbles  in  general,  their 
Cutting,  Working  and  Polishing  ;  Veneering  of  Marble  ;  Mosaics  ; 
Composition  and  Use  of  Artificial  Marble,  Stuccos,  Cements,  Receipts, 
Secrets,  etc.,  etc.  Translated  from  the  French  by  M.  L.  BOOTH. 
With  an  Appendix  concerning  American  Marbles.  I2mo.,  cloth  $1.50 

BOOTH    and    MORFIT.—  The    Encyclopaedia  of    Chemistry, 

Practical  and  Theoretical  : 

Embracing  its  application  to  the  Arts,  Metallurgy,  Mineralogy, 
Geology,  Medicine  and  Pharmacy.  By  JAMES  C.  BOOTH,  Melter 
and  Refiner  in  the  United  States  Mint,  Professor  of  Applied  Chem- 
istry in  the  Franklin  Institute,  etc.,  assisted  by  CAMPBELL  MORFIT, 
author  of  "  Chemical  Manipulations,"  etc.  Seventh  Edition.  Com- 
plete in  one  volume,  royal  8vo.,  978  pages,  with  numerous  wood-cuts 
and  other  illustrations  .....  .  . 


BRAM  WELL.—  The  Wool  Carder's  Vade-Mecum: 

A  Complete  Manual  of  the  Art  of  Carding  Textile  Fabrics.  By  W. 
C.  BRAMWELL.  Third  Edition,  revised  and  enlarged.  Illustrated. 
Pp.  400.  I2mo  .........  $2.50 

BRANNT.  —  A    Practical   Treatise  on  Animal  and  Vegetable 

Fats  and  Oils  : 

Comprising  both  Fixed  and  Volatile  Oils,  their  Physical  and  Chemi- 
cal Properties  and  Uses,  the  Manner  of  Extracting  and  Refining 
them,  and  Practical  Rules  for  Testing  them  ;  as  well  as  the  Manu- 
facture of  Artificial  Butter,  Lubricants,  including  Mineral  Lubricating 
Oils,  etc.,  and  on  Ozokerite.  Edited  chiefly  from  the  German  of 
DRS.  KARL  SCHAEDLER,  G.  W.  ASKINSON,  and  RICHARD  BRUNNER, 
with  Additions  and  Lists  of  American  Patents  relating  to  the  Extrac- 
tion, Rendering,  Refining,  Decomposing,  and  Bleaching  of  Fats  and 
Oils.  By  WILLIAM  T.  BRANNT.  Illustrated  by  244  engravings. 
739  pages.  8vo  .........  £7.50 

BRANNT.—  A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Manufacture  of  Soap 

and  Candles  : 

Based  upon  the  most  Recent  Experiences  in  the  Practice  and  Science  ; 
comprising  the  Chemistry,  Raw  Materials,  Machinery,  and  Utensils 
and  Various  Processes  of  Manufacture,  including  a  great  variety  of 
formulas.  Edited  chiefly  from  the  German  of  Dr.  C.  Deite,  A. 
Engelhardt,  Dr.  C.  Schaedler  and  others  ;  with  additions  and  lists 
of  American  Patents  relating  to  these  subjects.  By  WM.  T.  BRANNT. 
Illustrated  by  163  engravings.  677  pages.  8vo.  .  .  $7.50 

BRANNT.—  A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Raw  Materials  and  the 

Distillation  and  Rectification  of  Alcohol,  and  the  Prepara- 

tion of  Alcoholic  Liquors,  Liqueurs,  Cordials,  Bitters,  etc.  : 

Edited  chiefly  from  the  German  of  Dr.  K.  Stammer,  Dr.  ¥.  Eisner, 

and  E.  Schubert.     By  WM.  T.  BRANNT.     Illustrated  by  thirty-one 

engravings.     121110.  •         .»....         #2.50 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 


BRANNT— WAHL.— The  Techno- Chemical  Receipt  Book: 

Containing  several  thousand  Receipts  covering  the  latest,  most  *m 
portant,  and  most  useful  discoveries  in  Chemical  Technology,  and 
their  Practical  Application  in  the  Arts  and  the  Industries.  Edited 
chiefly  from  the  German  of  Drs.  Winckler,  Eisner,  Heintze,  Mier- 
zinski,  Jacobsen,  Koller,  and  Heinzerling,  with  additions  by  WM.  T. 

.    BRANNT  and  WM.  H.  WAHL,  PH.  D.     Illustrated  by  78  engravings. 
I2mo.     495  pages     ........         $2  oo 

BROWN. — Five  Hundred  and  Seven  Mechanical  Movements: 
Embracing  all  those  which  are  most  important  in  Dynamics,  Hy- 
draulics, Hydrostatics,  Pneumatics,  Steam-Engines,  Mill  and  other 

.    Gearing,  Presses,  Horology  and  Miscellaneous  Machinery;  and  in- 
cluding many  movements  never  before  published,  and  several  of 

.    which  have  only  recently  come  into  use.     By  HENRY  T.  BROWN. 

t    I2mo.    ..,.,...         .         .         .         .         .         .         $1.00 

BUCKMASTER.— The  Elements  of  Mechanical  Physics  : 
By  J.  C.  BUCKMASTER.       Illustrated   with   numerous   engravings. 
I2mo. $1.50 

BULLOCK. — The  American  Cottage  Builder : 

A  Series  of  Designs,  Plans  and  Specifications,  from  $200  to  $20,000, 
for  Homes  for  the  People ;  together  with  Warming,  Ventilation, 
Drainage,  Painting  and  Landscape  Gardening.  By. JOHN  BULLOCK, 
Architect  and  Editor  of  "  The  Rudiments  of  Architecture  and 
Building,"  etc.,  etc.  Illustrated  by  75  engravings.  8vo.  $3-5Q 

BULLOCK. — The  Rudiments  of  Architecture  and  Building: 
For  the  use  of  Architects,  Builders,  Draughtsmen,  Machinists,  En- 
gineers and  Mechanics.     Edited  by  JOHN  BULLOCK,  author  of  "  The 
American  Cottage  Builder."   Illustrated  by  250  Engravings.  8vo.  $3.30 

BURGH. — Practical    Rules    for    the   Proportions  of     Modern 

Engines  and  Boilers  for  Land  and  Marine  Purposes. 
By  N.  P.  BURGH,  Engineer.     I2mo.  ....         $1.50 

BYLES.— Sophisms    of    Free    Trade    and    Popular    Political 

Economy  Examined. 

By  a  BARRISTER  (SiR  JOHN  BARNARD  BYLES,  Judge  of  Common 
Pleas).  From  the  Ninth  English  Edition,  as  published  by  the 
Manchester  Reciprocity  Association.  I2mo.  .  .  .  $1.25 

BOWMAN.— The  Structure  of  the  Wool  Fibre  in  its  Relation 

to  the  Use  of  Wool  for  Technical  Purposes : 
Being  the  substance,  with  additions,  of  Five  Lectures,  delivered  at 
the  request  of  the  Council,  to  the  members  of  the  Bradford  Technical 
College,  and  the  Society  of  Dyers  and  Colorists.  By  F.  H.  BOW- 
MAN, D'.  Sc./F.  R.  S.  E.,  F.  L.  S.  Illustrated  by  32  engravings. 
8vo $6.50 

BYRNE.— Hand-Book  for  the  Artisan,  Mechanic,  and  Engi- 
neer: 

Comprising  the  Grinding  and  Sharpening  of  Cutting  Tools,  Abrasive 
Processes,  Lapidary  Work,  Gem  and  Glass  Engraving,  Varnishing 
and  Lackering,  Apparatus,  Materials  and  Processes  for  Grinding  and 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 


Polishing,  etc.  By  OLIVER  BYRNE.  Illustrated  by  185  wood  en- 
gravings. 8vo. $5.oc 

BYRNE. — Pocket-Book  for  Railroad  and  Civil  Engineers : 

Containing  New,  Exact  and  Concise  Methods  for  Laying  out  Railroad 
Curves,  Switches,  Frog  Angles  and  Crossings ;  the  Staking  out  of 
work;  Levelling;  the  Calculation  of  Cuttings;  Embankments;  Earth- 
work, etc.  By  OLIVER  BYRNE.  i8mo.,  full  bound,  pocket-book 
form $!'75 

BYRNE.— The  Practical  Metal- Worker's  Assistant: 

Comprising  Metallurgic  Chemistry;  the  Arts  of  Working  all  Metals 
and  Alloys;  Forging  of  Iron  and  Steel;  Hardening  and  Tempering; 
Melting  and  Mixing;  Casting  and  Founding  ;  Works  in  Sheet  Metal; 
the  Processes  Dependent  on  the  Ductility  of  the  Metals;  Soldering; 
and  the  most  Improved  Processes  and  Tools  employed  by  Metal- 
workers. With  the  Application  of  the  Art  of  Electro- Metallurgy  to 
Manufacturing  Processes ;  collected  from  Original  Sources,  and  from 
the  works  of  Holtzapfifel,  Bergeron,  Leupold,  Plumier,  Napier, 
Scoffern,  Clay,  Fairbairn  and  others.  By  OLIVER  BYRNE.  A  new, 
revised  and  improved  edition,  to  which  is  added  an  Appendix,  con- 
taining The  Manufacture  of  Russian  Sheet- Iron.  By  JOHN  PERCY, 
M.  D.,  F.  R.  S.  The  Manufacture  of  Malleable  Iron  Castings,  and 
Improvements  in  Bessemer  Steel.  By  A.  A.  FESQUET,  Chemist  and 
Engineer.  With  over  Six  Hundred  Engravings,  Illustrating  every 
Branch  of  the  Subject.  8vo $7.00 

BYRNE.— The  Practical  Model  Calculator: 

For  the  Engineer,  Mechanic,  Manufacturer  of  Engine  Work,  Naval 
Architect,  Miner  and  Millwright.  By  OLIVER  BYRNE.  8vo.,  nearly 
600  pages #4.5a 

CABINET  MAKER'S  ALBUM  OF  FURNITURE: 

Comprising  a  Collection  of  Designs  for  varioiis  Styles  of  Furniture. 
Illustrated  by  Forty-eight  Large  and  Beautifully  Engraved  Plates. 
Oblong,  8vo.  .........  $3.50 

CALLINGHAM. — Sign  Writing  and  Glass  Embossing: 

A  Complete  Practical  Illustrated  Manual  of  the  Art.  By  JAMES 
CALLINGHAM.  I2mo.  .......  $1.50 

CAMPIN. — A  Practical  Treatise  on  Mechanical  Engineering: 
Comprising  Metallurgy,  Moulding,  Casting,  Forging,  Tools,  Work* 
shop  Machinery,  Mechanical  Manipulation,  Manufacture  of  Steam- 
Engines,  etc.  With  an  Appendix  on  the  Analysis  of  Iron  and  Iron 
Ores.  By  FRANCIS  CAMPIN,  C.  E.  To  which  are  added,  Observations 
on  the  Construction  of  Steam  Boilers,  and  Remarks  upon  Furnaces 
used  for  Smoke  Prevention ;  with  a  Chapter  on  Explosions.  By  R. 
ARMSTRONG,  C.  E.,  and  JOHN  BOURNE.  Rules  for  Calculating  th« 
Change  Wheels  for  Screws  on  a  Turning  Lathe,  and  for  a  Wheel- 
cutting  Machine.  By  J.  LA  NICCA.  Management  of  Steel,  Includ- 
ing Forging,  Hardening,  Tempering,  Annealing,  Shrinking  and 
Expansi  >n  ;  and  the  Case-hardening  of  Iron.  By  G.  EDE.  8vo. 
Illustrated  with  twenty-nine  plates  and  100  wood  engravings  $5.00 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 


CAREY. — A  Memoir  of  Henry  C.  Carey. 

By  DR.  WM.  ELDER.    With  a  portrait.     8vo.,  cloth        .        .        75 

CAREY.— The  Works  of  Henry  C.  Carey : 

Harmony  of  Interests  :    Agricultural,  Manufacturing  and  Commer- 
cial.    8vo.  ,         .         .         $1.50 

Manual  of  Social  Science.  Condensed  from  Carey's  "  Principles 
of  Social  Science."  By  KATE  McKEAN.  I  vol.  I2mo.  .  $2.25 
Miscellaneous  Works.  With  a  Portrait.  2  vols.  8vo.  $6.06 

Past,  Present  and  Future.     8vo $2.50 

Principles  of  Social  Science.  3  volumes,  8vo.  .  .  $10.00 
The  Slave-Trade,  Domestic  and  Foreign;  Why  it  Exists,  and 
How  it  may  be  Extinguished  (1853).  8vo.  .  .  .  $2.00 
The  Unity  of  Law :  As  Exhibited  in  the  Relations  of  Physical, 
Social,  Mental  and  Moral  Science  (1872).  8vo.  .  .  $3.50 

CLARK. — Tramways,  their  Construction  and  Working : 

Embracing  a  Comprehensive  History  of  the  System.  With  an  ex«- 
haustive  analysis  of  the  various  modes  of  traction,  including  horse- 
power, steam,  heated  water  and  compressed  air;  a  description  of  thf 
varieties  of  Rolling  stock,  and  ample  details  of  cost  and  working  ex- 
penses. By  D.  KINNEAR  CLARK.  Illustrated  by  over  200  wood 
engravings,  and  thirteen  folding  plates.  2  vols.  8vo.  .  $12.50 

COLBURN. — The  Locomotive  Engine  : 

Including  a  Description  of  its  Structure,  Rules  for  Estimating  its 
Capabilities,  and  Practical  Observations  on  its  Construction  and  Man- 
agement. By  ZERAH  COLBURN.  Illustrated.  I2mo.  .  $1.00 

COLLENS. — The  Eden  of  Labor;  or,  the  Christian  Utopia. 
By  T.  WHARTON  COLLENS,  author  of  "  Humanics,"   "The  History 
of  Charity,"  etc.     I2mo.     Paper  cover,  $1.00;  Cloth          .         $1.25 

COOLEY.— A  Complete  Practical  Treatise  on  Perfumery : 

Being  a  Hand-book  of  Perfumes,  Cosmetics  and  other  Toilet  Articles. 
With  a  Comprehensive  Collection  of  Formulae.  By  ARNOLD  J. 
COOLEY.  I2mo .  .  $1.5* 

COOPER.— A  Treatise  on  the  use  of  Belting  for  the  Trans- 

mission  of  Power. 

With  numerous  illustrations  of  approved  and  actual  methods  of  ar- 
ranging Main  Driving  and  Quarter  Twist  Belts,  and  of  Belt  Fasten- 
ings. Examples  and  Rules  in  great  number  for  exhibiting  and  cal- 
culating the  size  and  driving  power  of  Belts.  Plain,  Particular  and 
Practical  Directions  for  the  Treatment,  Care  and  Management  of 
Belts.  Descriptions  of  many  varieties  of  Beltings,  together  with 
chapters  on  the  Transmission  of  Power  by  Ropes ;  by  Iron  and 
Wood  Frictional  Gearing ;  on  the  Strength  of  Belting  Leather ;  and 
on  the  Experimental  Investigations  of  Morin,  Briggs,  and  others.  By 
JOHN  H.  COOPER,  M.  E.  8vo $3-SQ 

CRAIK.— The  Practical  American  Millwright  and  Miller. 
By  DAVID  CRAIK,  Millwright.     Illustrated  by  numerous  wood  en- 
gravings and  two  folding  plates.     8vo $5-OO 


HENRY  CAREY   BAIRD  &  CO.'S   CATALOGUE. 


CREW.  —  A  Practical  Treatise  on  Petroleum  : 

Comprising  its  Origin,  Geology,  Geographical  Distribution,  History, 
Chemistry,  Mining,  Technology,  Uses  and  Transportation.  Together 
with  a  Description  of  Gas  Wells,  the  Application  of  Gas  as  Fuel,  etc. 
By  BENJAMIN  J.  CREW.  With  an  Appendix  on  the  Product  and 
Exhaustion  of  the  Oil  Regions,  and  the  Geology  of  Natural  Gas  in 
Pennsylvania  and  New  York.  By  CHARLES  A.  ASHBURNER,  M.  S.,. 
Geologist  in  Charge  Pennsylvania  Survey,  Philadelphia.  Illustrated 
by  70  engravings.  8vo.  508  pages  ....  $5.00 

CROOKES.  —  Select  Methods   in  Chemical  Analysis  (Chiefly 

Inorganic)  : 

By  WILLIAM  CROOKES,  F.  R.  S.,  V.  P.  C.  S.  2d  edition,  re-written 
and  greatly  enlarged.  Illustrated  by  37  wood-cuts.  725  pp.  8vo.  $8.00 

CRISTIANI.  —  A  Technical  Treatise  on  Soap  and  Candles: 
With  a  Glance  at  the  Industry  of  Fats  and  Oils.     By  R.  S.  CRIS- 
TIANI, Chemist.     Author  of  "  Perfumery  and  Kindred  Arts."     Illus- 
trated by  176  engravings.     581  pages,  8vo.         .         .         .         $7.  50 

CRISTIANI.—  Perfumery  and  Kindred  Arts: 

A  Comprehensive  Treatise  on  Perfumery,  containing  a  History  of 
Perfumes  from  the  remotest  ages  to  the  present  time.  A  complete 
detailed  description  of  the  various  Materials  and  Apparatus  used  in 
the  Perfumer's  Art,  with  thorough  Practical  Instruction  and  careful 
Formulae,  and  advice  for  the  fabrication  of  all  known  preparations  of 
the  day,  including  Essences,  Tinctures,  Extracts,  Spirits,  Waters, 
Vinegars,  Pomades,  Powders,  Paints,  Oils,  Emulsions,  Cosmetics, 
Infusions,  Pastilles,  Tooth  Powders  and  Washes,  Cachous,  Hair  Dyes, 
Sachets,  Essential  Oils,  Flavoring  Extracts,  etc.  ;  and  full  details  for 
making  and  manipulating  Fancy  Toilet  Soaps,  Shaving  Creams,  etc., 
by  new  and  improved  methods.  With  an  Appendix  giving  hints  and 
advice  for  making  and  fermenting  Domestic  Wines,  Cordials,  Liquors, 
Candies,  Jellies,  Syrups,  Colors,  etc.,  and  for  Perfuming  and  Flavor- 
ing Segars,  Snuff  and  Tobacco,  and  Miscellaneous  Receipts  for 
various  useful  Analogous  Articles.  By  R.  S.  CRISTIANI,  Con- 
sulting Chemist  and  Perfumer,  Philadelphia.  8vo..  .  .  $5  .00 

DAVIDSON.—  A  Practical  Manual  of  House  Painting,  Grain* 

ing,  Marbling,  and  Sign-  Writing  : 

Containing  full  information  on  the  processes  of  House  Painting  in 
Oil  and  Distemper,  the  Formation  of  Letters  and  Practice  of  Sign- 
Writing,  the  Principles  of  Decorative  Art,  a  Course  of  Elementary 
Drawing  for  House  Painters,  Writers,  etc.,  and  a  Collection  of  Useful 
Receipts.  With  nine  colored  illustrations  of  Woods  and  Marbles, 
and  numerous  wood  engravings.  By  ELLIS  A.  DAVIDSON.  I2mo. 


DAVIES.—  A   Treatise  on    Earthy  and   Other   Minerals   and 

Mining  : 

By  D.  C.  DAVIES,  F.  G.  S.,  Mining  Engineer,  etc.     Illustrated  by 
ngravings.     I2mo  ........        $5.00 


By 

76  E 


to          HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 

DAVIES.— A  Treatise  on  Metalliferous  Minerals  and  Mining: 
By  D.  C.  DAVIES,  F.  G.  S.,  Mining  Engineer,  Examiner  of  Mines, 
Quarries  and  Collieries.    Illustrated  by  148  engravings  of  Geological 
Formations,    Mining   Operations   and   Machinery,    drawn    from    the 
practice  of  all  parts  of  the  world.    2d  Edition,  I2mo.,  450  pages  $5.00 

NAVIES. — A  Treatise  on  Slate  and  Slate  Quarrying: 

Scientific,  Practical  and  Commercial.  By  D.  C.  DAVIES,  F.  G.  S., 
Mining  Engineer,  etc.  With  numerous  illustrations  and  folding 
plates,  imio #2.03 

DAVIS. — A  Treatise  on  Steam-Boiler  Incrustation  and  Meth- 
ods for  Preventing  Corrosion  and  the  Formation  of  Scale  ; 
By  CHARLES  T.  DAVIS.     Illustrated  by  65  engravings.     8vo.    $2.0* 

PAVIS. — The  Manufacture  of  Paper: 

Being  a  Description  of  the  various  Processes  for  the  Fabrication, 
Coloring  and  Finishing  of  every  kind  of  Paper,  Including  the  Dif- 
ferent Raw  Materials  and  the  Methods  for  Determining  their  Values, 
the  Tools,  Machines  and  Practical  Details  connected  with  an  intelli- 
gent and  a  profitable  prosecution  of  the  art,  with  special  reference  to 
the  best  American  Practice.  To  which  are  added  a  History  of  Pa- 
per, complete  Lists  of  Paper-Making  Materials,  List  of  American 
Machines,  Tools  and  Processes  used  in  treating  the  Raw  Materials, 
and  in  Making,  Coloring  and  Finishing  Paper.  By  CHARLES  T. 
DAVIS.  Illustrated  by  156  engravings.  608  pages,  8vo.  $6.00 

DAVIS. — The  Manufacture  of  Leather: 

Being  a  description  of  all  of  the  Processes  for  the  Tanning,  Tawing, 
Currying,  Finishing  and  Dyeing  of  every  kind  of  Leather ;  including 
the  various  Raw  Materials  and  the  Methods  for  Determining  their 
Values;  the  Tools,  Machines,  and  all  Details  of  Importance  con- 
nected with  an  Intelligent  and  Profitable  Prosecution  of  the  Art,  with 
Special  Reference  to  the  Best  American  Practice.  To  which  are 
added  Complete  Lists  of  all  American  Patents  for  Materials,  Pro- 
cesses, Tools,  and  Machines  for  Tanning,  Currying,  etc.  By  CHARLES 
THOMAS  DAVIS.  Illustrated  by  302  engravings  and  12  Samples  of 
Dyed  Leathers.  One  vol.,  8vo.,  824  pages  .  .  .  $10.00 

DAWIDOWSKY— BRANNT.— A  Practical  Treatise  on  the 
Raw  Materials  and  Fabrication  of  Glue,  Gelatine,  Gelatine 
Veneers  and  Foils,  Isinglass,  Cements,  Pastes,  Mucilages, 
etc. : 

Based  upon  Actual  Experience.  By  F.  DAWIDOWSKY,  Technical 
Chemist.  Translated  from  the  German,  with  extensive  additions, 
including  a  description  of  the  most  Recent  American  Processes,  by 
WILLIAM  T.  BRANNT,  Graduate  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  College 
of  Eldena,  Prussia.  35  Engravings.  I2mo.  .  ..  .  $2.50 

DE  GRAFF. — The  Geometrical  Stair-Builders'  Guide : 

Being  a  Plain  Practical  System  of  Hand-Railing,  embracing  all  its 
necessary  Details,  and  Geometrically  Illustrated  by  twenty-two  Steel 
Engravings ;  together  with  the  use  of  the  most  approved  principle! 
of  Practical  Geometry.  By  SIMO,N  DE  GRAFF,  Architect.  4t«. 

#2.50 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO'.S  CATALOGUE.          If 

DE  KONINCK— DIETZ.— A   Practical   Manual  of  Chemical 

Analysis  and  Assaying : 

As  applied  to  the  Manufacture  of  Iron  from  its  Ores,  and  to  Cast  Iron, 
Wrought  Iron,  and  Steel,  as  found  in  Commerce.  By  L.  L.  DE 
KONINCK,  Dr.  Sc.,  and  E.  DIETZ,  Engineer.  Edited  with  Notes,  by 
ROBERT  MALLET,  F.  R.  S.,  F.  S.  G.,  M.  I.  C.  E.,  etc.  American 
Edition,  Edited  with  Notes  and  an  Appendix  on  Iron  Ores,  by  A.  A. 
FESQUET,  Chemist  and  Engineer.  I2mo.  .  .  .  $2.50 

DUNCAN.— Practical  Surveyor's  Guide:  1 

Containing  the  necessary  information  to  make  any  person  of  com- 
mon capacity,  a  finished  land  surveyor  without  the  aid  of  a  teacher. 
By  ANDREW  DUNCAN.  Illustrated.  I2mo.  .  .  .  $1.25 

DUPLAIS. — A  Treatise  on  the  Manufacture  and  Distillation 

of  Alcoholic  Liquors : 

Comprising  Accurate  and  Complete  Details  in  Regard  to  Alcohol 
from  Wine,  Molasses,  Beets,  Grain,  Rice,  Potatoes,  Sorghum,  Aspho- 
del, Fruits,  etc. ;  with  the  Distillation  and  Rectification  of  Brandy, 
Whiskey,  Rum,  Gin,  Swiss  Absinthe,  etc.,  the  Preparation  of  Aro- 
matic Waters,  Volatile  Oils  or  Essences,  Sugars,  Syrups,  Aromatic 
Tinctures,  Liqueurs,  Cordial  Wines,  Effervescing  Wines,  etc.,  the 
Ageing  of  Brandy  and  the  improvement  of  Spirits,  with  Copious 
Directions  and  Tables  for  Testing  and  Reducing  Spirituous  Liquors, 
etc.,  etc.  Translated  and  Edited  from  the  French  of  MM.  DUPLAIS, 
Aine  et  Jeune.  By  M.  McKENNlE,  M.  D.  To  which  are  added  the 
United  States  Internal  Revenue  Regulations  for  the  Assessment  and 
Collection  of  Taxes  on  Distilled  Spirits.  Illustrated  by  fourteen 
folding  plates  and  several  wood  engravings.  743  pp.  8vo.  $10  oo 

DUSSAUCE.— Practical  Treatise  on  the  Fabrication  of  Matches, 

Gun  Cotton,  and  Fulminating  Powder. 
By  Professor  H.  DUSSAUCE.     I2mo.          .         .         .         .        $3  oo 

DYER  AND  COLOR-MAKER'S  COMPANION: 

Containing  upwards  of  two  hundred  Receipts  for  making  Colors,  on 
the  most  approved  principles,  for  all  the  various  styles  and  fabrics  now 
in  existence ;  with  the  Scouring  Process,  and  plain  Directions  for 
Preparing,  Washing-off,  and  Finishing  the  Goods.  I2mo.  $i  25 

EDWARDS. — A  Catechism  of  the  Marine  Steam-Engine, 
For  the  use  of '  Engineers,  Firemen,  and  Mechanics.  A  Practical 
Work  for  Practical  Men.  By  EMORY  EDWARDS,  Mechanical  Engi- 
neer. Illustrated  by  sixty-three  Engravings,  including  examples  of 
the  most  modern  Engines.  Third  edition,  thoroughly  revised,  with 
much  additional  matter.  12  mo.  414  pages  .  .  .  $2  oo 

EDWARDS. — Modern  American  Locomotive  Engines, 

Their  Design,  Construction  and  Management.  By  EMORY  EDWARDS, 
Illustrated  I2mo $2.00 

EDWARDS. — The  American  Steam  Engineer: 

Theoretical  and  Practical,  with  examples  of  the  latest  and  most  ap- 
proved American  practice  in  the  design  and  construction  of  Steam 
Engines  and  Boilers.  For  the  use  of  engineers,  machinists,  boiler- 
makers,  and  engineering  students.  By  EMORY  EDWARDS.  Fully 
illustrated,  over  400  pages.  I2mo.  ....  $2.50 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 


EDWARDS. — Modern  American  Marine  Engines,  Boilers,  and 

Screw  Propellers, 

Their  Design  and  Construction.  Showing  the  Present  Practice  of 
the  most  Eminent  Engineers  and  Marine  Engine  Builders  in  the 
United  States.  Illustrated  by  30  large  and  elaborate  plates.  4to.  $5.00 

EDWARDS. — The  Practical  Steam  Engineer's  Guide 

v  In  the  Design,  Construction,  and  Management  of  American  Stationary, 
Portable,  and  Steam  Fire- Engines,  Steam  Pumps,  Boilers,  Injectors, 
Governors,  Indicators,  Pistons  and  Rings,  Safety  Valves  and  Steam 

.  Gauges.  For  the  use  of  Engineers,  Firemen,  and  Steam  Users.  By 
EMORY  EDWARDS.  Illustrated  by  119  engravings.  420  pages. 
121110 ' $2  50 

EISSLER.— The  Metallurgy  of  Gold  : 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Metallurgical  Treatment  of  Gold-Bear- 
ing  Ores,  including  the  Processes  of  Concentration  and  Chlorination, 
and  the  Assaying,  Melting,  and  Refining  of  Gold.  By  M.  EISSLER. 
With  90  Illustrations.  1 88  pp.  I2ino $3  oo 

ELDER.— Conversations  on  the  Principal  Subjects  of  Political 
Economy. 

By  Dr.  WILLIAM  ELDER.  8vo. $2  50 

ELDER.— Questions  of  the  Day, 

Economic  and  Social.     By  Dr.  WILLIAM  ELDER.  8vo.     .        $3  oo 

ELDER.— Memoir  of  Henry  C.  Carey. 
By  Dr.  WILLIAM  ELDER.  8vo.  cloth 75 

ERNI.— Mineralogy  Simplified. 

Easy  Methods  of  Determining  and  Classifying  Minerals,  including 
Ores,  by  means  of  the  Blowpipe,  and  by  Humid  Chemical  Analysis, 
based  on  Professor  von  Kobell's  Tables  for  the  Determination  of 
Minerals,  with  an  Introduction  to  Modern  Chemistry.  By  HENRY 
ERNI,  A.M.,  M.D.,  Professor  of  Chemistry.  Second  Edition,  rewritten, 
enlarged  and  improved.  I2mo. £3  oo 

FAIRBAIRN.— The  Principles  of  Mechanism  and  Machinery 

of  Transmission  • 

Comprising  the  Principles  of  Mechanism,  Wheels,  and  Pulleys, 
Strength  and  Proportions  of  Shafts,  Coupling  of  Shafts,  and  Engag- 
ing and  Disengaging  Gear.  By  SIR  WILLIAM  FAIRBAIRN,  Bart. 
C.  E.  Beautifully  illustrated  by  over  150  wood-cuts.  In  one 
volume.  I2mo $2.50 

FLEMING. — Narrow  Gauge  Railways  in  America. 

A  Sketch  of  their  Rise,  Progress,  and  Success.  Valuable  Statistics 
as  to  Grades,  Curves,  Weight  of  Rail,  Locomotives,  Cars,  etc.  By 
HOWARD  FLEMING.  Illustrated,  8vo $i  oo 

FORSYTH.— Book  of  Designs  for  Headstones,   Mural,  and 

other  Monuments : 

Containing  78  Designs.  By  JAMES  FORSYTH.  With  an  Introduction 
by  CHARLES  BOUTELL,  M.  A.  4  to.,  cloth  .  .  -  #5  oo 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE.          13 

FRANKEI HUTTER.— A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Manu- 
facture of  Starch,  Glucose,  Starch-Sugar,  and  Dextrine  : 

.  Based  on  the  German  of  LADISLAUS  VON  WAGNER,  Professor  in  the 
Royal  Technical  High  School,  Bucla-Pest,  Hungary,  and  other 
authorities.  By  JULIUS  FRANKEL,  Graduate  of  the  Polytechnic 
School  of  Hanover.  Edited  by  ROBERT  HUTTER,  Chemist,  Practical! 
Manufacturer  of  Starch-Sugar.  Illustrated  by  58  engravings,  cover- 
ing every  branch  of  the  subject,  including  examples  of  the  most 
Recent  and  Best  American  Machinery.  8vo.,  344  pp.  .  $3.50 

GEE. — The  Goldsmith's  Handbook  : 

Containing  full  instructions  for  the  Alloying  and  Working  of  Gold, 
including  the  Art  of  Alloying,  Melting,  Reducing,  Coloring,  Col- 
lecting, and  Refining;  the  Processes  of  Manipulation,  Recovery  of 
Waste ;  Chemical  and  Physical  Properties  of  Gold ;  with  a  Nev* 
System  of  Mixing  its  Alloys;  Solders,  Enamels,  and  other  Useful 
Rules  and  Recipes.  By  GEORGE  E.  GEE.  I2mo.  .  .  $i-75 

GEE. — The  Silversmith's  Handbook : 

Containing  full  instructions  for  the  Alloying  and  Working  of  Silver, 
including  the  different  modes  of  Refining  and  Melting  the  Metal ;  its 
Solders ;  the  Preparation  of  Imitation  Alloys ;  Methods  of  Manipula- 
tion ;  Prevention  of  Waste ;  Instructions  for  Improving  and  Finishing 
the  Surface  of  the  Work ;  together  with  other  Useful  Information  and 
Memoranda.  By  GEORGE  E.  GEE,  Jeweller.  Illustrated.  I2mo. 

*i.7J 

GOTHIC  ALBUM  FOR  CABINET-MAKERS  : 

Designs  for  Gothic  Furniture.    Twenty-three  plates.    Oblong     $2.00 

GREEN  WOOD.— Steel  and  Iron : 

Comprising  the  Practice  and  Theory  of  the  Several  Methods  Pur- 
sued in  their  Manufacture,  and  of  their  Treatment  in  the  Rolling- 
Mills,  the  Forge,  and  the  Foundry.  By  WILLIAM  HENRY  GREEN- 
WOOD, F.  C.  S.  Asso.  M.  I.  C.  E.,  M.  I.  M.  E.,  Associate  of  the  Royal 
School  of  Mines.  With  97  Diagrams,  536  pages.  I2mo.  .  $2.00 

GREGORY.— Mathematics  for  Practical  Men  : 

Adapted  to  the  Pursuits  of  Surveyors,  Architects,  Mechanics,  and 
Civil  Engineers.  By  OLINTHUS  GREGORY.  8vo.,  plates  .  #3.00 

GRIER. — Rural  Hydraulics : 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  Rural  Household  Water  Supply.  Giving  a 
full  description  of  Springs  and  Wells,  of  Pumps  and  Hydraulic  Ram, 
with  Instructions  in  Cistern  Building,  Laying  of  Pipes,  etc.  By  W. 
W.  GRIER.  Illustrated  8vo 75 

GRIMSH AW.— Modern  Milling: 

Being  the  substance  of  two  addresses  delivered  by  request,  at  the 
Franklin  Institute,  Philadelphia,  January  iglh  and  January  27th, 
1881.  By  ROBERT  GRIMSHAW,  Ph.  D.  Edited  from  the  Phono- 
graphic Reports.  With  28  Illustrations.  8vo. 

GRIMSHAW.— Saws : 

The  History,  Development,  Action,  Classification,  and  Comparison 
1  f  *  of  all  kind*.  With  Cofiious  Attpsndices.  Giving  the  details 


14        HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 

•  of  Manufacture,  Filing,  Setting,  Gumming,  etc.     Care  and  Use  of 
Saws;  Tables  of  Gauges;  Capacities  of  Saw-Mills;    List  of  Saw- 
Patents,  and  other  valuable  information.     By  ROBERT  GRIMSHAW. 

'   Second  and  greatly  enlarged  edition,  with  Supplement,  and  354  Illus- 
trations.    Quarto #4-°° 

GRIMSHAW. — A  Supplement  to  Grimshaw  on  Saws: 

Containing  additional  practical  matter,  more  especially  relating  to  the 
Forms  of  Saw-Teeth,  for  special  material  and  conditions,  and  to  the 
Behavior  of  Saws  under  particular  conditions.  I2O  Illustrations.  By 
ROBERT  GRIMSHAW.  Quarto 

GRISWOLD. — Railroad  Engineer's  Pocket  Companion  for  the 

Field: 
Comprising  Rules  for  Calculating  Deflection  Distances  and  Angles, 

•  Tangential  Distances  and  Angles,  and  all  Necessary  Tables  for  En- 
gineers; also  the  Art  of  Levelling  from   Preliminary  Survey  to  the 
Construction  of  Railroads,  intended  Expressly  for  the  Young  En- 
gineer,  together  with  Numerous  Valuable  Rules  and  Examples.     By 
W.  GRISWOLD.     I2mo.,  tucks $1-75 

GRUNER.— Studies  of  Blast  Furnace  Phenomena: 

By  M.  L.  GRUNER,  President  of  the  General  Council  of  Mines  oi 
France,  and  lately  Professor  of  Metallurgy  at  the  Ecole  des  Mines. 
Translated,  with  the  author's  sanction,  with  an  Appendix,  by  L.  D. 
B.  GORDON,  F.  R.  S.  E.,  F.  G.  S.  8vo.  .  .  .  $2.50 

Hand-Book  of  Useful  Tables  for  the  Lumberman,  Farmer  and 

Mechanic : 

Containing  Accurate  Tables  of  Logs  Reduced  to  Inch  Board  Meas*. 
ure,  Plank,  Scantling  and  Timber  Measure ;  Wages  and  Rent,  by 
Week  or  Month;  Capacity  of  Granaries,  Bins  and  Cisterns;  Land 
Measure,  Interest  Tables,  with  Directions  for  Finding  the  Interest  on 
any  sum  at  4,  5,  6,  7  and  8  per  cent.,  and  many  other  Useful  Tables. 
32  mo.,  boards.  1 86  pages .25 

HASERICK.— The  Secrets  of  the  Art  of  Dyeing  Wool,  Cotton, 

and  Linen, 

Including  Bleaching  and  Coloring  Wool  and  Cotton  Hosiery  and 
Random  Yarns.  A  Treatise  based  on  Economy  and  Practice.  By 
E.  C.  HASERICK.  Illustrated  by  323  Dyed  Patterns  of  the  Yarns 
or  Fabrics.  8vo $12.50 

,HATS  AND  FELTING: 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  their  Manufacture.  By  a  Practical  Hatter. 
Illustrated  by  Drawings  of  Machinery,  etc.  8vo.  .  .  $1.25 

HOFFER. — A   Practical   Treatise   on   Caoutchouc  and   Gutta 

Percha, 

Comprising  the  Properties  of  the  Raw  Materials,  and  the  manner  of 
Mixing  and  Working  them ;  with  the  Fabrication  of  Vulcanized  and 
Hard  Rubbers,  Caoutchouc  *nd  Gutta  Pe*cha  Compositions,  Water. 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE.          15 

proof  Substances,  Elastic  Tissues,  the  Utilization  of  Waste,  etc.,  etc. 
From  the  German  of  RAIMUND  HOFFER.  By  W.  T.  ERANNT. 
Illustrated  I2mo $2.50 

HOFMANN. — A  Practical   Treatise  on   the   Manufacture  of 

Paper  in  all  its  Branches : 

By  CARL  HOFMANN,  Late  Superintendent  of  Paper-Mills  in  Germany 
and  the  United  States ;  recently  Manager  of  the  "  Public  Ledger  " 
Paper-Mills,  near  Elkton,  Maryland.  Illustrated  by  no  wood  en- 
gravings, and  five  large  Folding  Plates.  4to.,  cloth ;  about  400 
pages  .  $35-°° 

HUGHES.— American  Miller  and  Millwright's  Assistant: 
By  WILLIAM  CARTER  HUGHES.    I2mo $1.50 

HULME. — Worked  Examination  Questions  in  Plane  Geomet- 
rical Drawing : 

For  the  Use  of  Candidates  for  the  Royal  Military  Academy,  Wool- 
wich ;  the  Royal  Military  College,  Sandhurst ;  the  Indian  Civil  En- 
gineering College,  Cooper's  Hill;  Indian  Public  Works  and  Tele- 
graph Departments ;  Royal  Marine  Li^ht  Infantry;  the  Oxford  and 
Cambridge  Local  Examinations,  etc.  By  F.  EDWARD  HULME,  F.  L. 
S.,  F.  S.  A.,  Art-Master  Marlborough  College.  Illustrated  by  300 
examples.  Small  quarto  .  .  .  .  .  .  $2.50 

JERVIS. — Railroad  Property: 

A  Treatise  on  the  Construction  and  Management  of  Railways; 
designed  to  afford  useful  knowledge,  in  the  popular  style,  to  the 
holders  of  this  class  of  property ;  as  well  as  Railway  Managers,  Offi- 
cers, ar.d  Agents.  By  JOHN  B.  JERVIS,  late  Civil  Engineer  of  the 
Hudson  Riv.er  Railroad,  Croton  Aqueduct,  etc.  i2mo.,  cloth  $2.00 

KEENE. — A  Hand-Book  of  Practical  Gauging: 

For  the  Use  of  Beginners,  to  which  is  added  a  Chapter  on  Distilla« 
tion,  describing  thje  process  in  operation  at  the  Custom-House  for 
ascertaining  the  Strength  of  Wines.  By  JAMES  B.  KEENE,  of  H.  M. 
Customs.  8vo. $1.25 

KELLEY. — Speeches,  Addresses,  and  Letters  on  Industrial  and 

Financial  Questions : 
By  HON.  WILLIAM  D.  KELLEY,  M.  C.     544  pages,  8vo.  .        #3.00 

KELLOGG.— A  New  Monetary  System  : 

The  only  means  of  Securing  the  respective  Rights  of  Labor  and 
Property,  and  of  Protecting  the  Public  from  Financial  Revulsions. 
By  EDWARD  KELLOGG.  Revised  from  his  work  on  "Labor  and 
other  Capital."  With  numerous  additions  from  his  manuscript 
Edited  by  MARY  KELLOGG  PUTNAM.  Fifth  edition.  To  which  w 
added  a  Biographical  Sketch  of  the  Author.  One  volume,  I2mo. 

Paper  cover $1.00 

Bound  in  cloth .......  1.50 

KEMLO.— Watch-Repairer's  Hand-Book : 

Being  a  Complete  Guide  to  the  Young  Beginner,  in  Taking  Apart, 
Putting  Together,  and  Thoroughly  Cleaning  the  English  Lever  and 
other  Voreign  Watches,  and  all  American  Watches.  By  F.  KKMLO, 

.    Practical  Watchmaker.     With  Illustrations.      I2mo.  .         #1.25 


16          HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 

KENTISH. — A  Treatise  on  a  Box  of  Instruments, 

And  the  Slide  Rule ;  with  the  Theory  of  Trigonometry  and  Loga 
rithms,  including  Practical  Geometry,  Surveying,  Measuring  of  Tim. 
ber,  Cask  and  Malt  Gauging,  Heights,  and  Distances.  By  THOMAS 
KENTISH.  In  one  volume.  I2mo.  ....  $>l-2*j 

KERL.— The  Assayer's  Manual: 

An  Abridged  Treatise  on  the  Docimastic  Examination  of  Ores,  and 
Furnace  and  other  Artificial  Products.  By  BRUNO  KERL,  Professoi 
in  the  Royal  School  of  Mines ;  Member  of  the  Royal  Technical 
Commission  for  the  Industries,  and  of  the  Imperial  Patent-Office, 
Berlin.  Translated  from  the  German  by  WILLIAM  T.  BRANNT, 
Graduate  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  College  of  Eldena,  Prussia. 
Edited  by  WILLIAM  H.  WAHL,  Ph.  D.,  Secretary  of  the  Franklin 
Institute,  Philadelphia.  Illustrated  by  sixty-five  engravings,  8vo. 

$3.00 

KICK.— Flour  Manufacture . 

A  Treatise  on  Milling  Science  and  Practice.  By  FREDERICK  KICK, 
Imperial  Regierungsrath,  Professor  of  Mechanical  Technology  in  the 
Imperial  German  Polytechnic  Institute,  Prague.  Translated  from 
the  second  enlarged  and  revised  edition  with  supplement  by  H.  H. 
P.  POWLES,  Assoc.  Memb.  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers.  Illustrated 
with  28  Plates,  and  167  Wood-cuts.  367  pages.  8vo.  .  $10.00 

KINGZETT.— The   History,  Products,  and   Processes  of  the 

Alkali  Trade : 

Including  the  most  Recent  Improvements.  By  CHARLES  THOMAS 
KINGZETT,  Consulting  Chemist.  With  23  illustrations.  8vo.  $2.50 

KINSLEY. — Self- Instructor  on  Lumber  Surveying: 

For  the  Use  of  Lumber  Manufacturers,  Surveyors,  and  Teachers. 
By  CHARLES  KINSLEY,  Practical  Surveyor  and  Teacher  of  Surveying. 
I2mo #2.00 

KIRK.— The  Founding  of  Metals : 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Melting  of  Iron,  with  a  Description  of  the 
Founding  of  Alloys;  also,  of  all  the  Metals  and  Mineral  Substances 
used  in  the  Art  of  Founding.  Collected  from  original  sources.  By 
EDWARD  KIRK,  Practical  Foundryman  and  Chemist.  Illustrated. 
Third  edition.  8vo. $2.50 

LANDRIN.— A  Treatise  on  Steel: 

Comprising  its  Theory,  Metallurgy,  Properties,  Practical  Working, 
and  Use.  By  M.  H.  C.  LANDRIN,  JR.,  Civil  Engineer.  Translated 
from  the  French,  with  Notes,  by  A.  A.  FESQUET,  Chemist  and  En- 
gineer. With  an  Appendix  on  the  Bessemer  and  the  Martin  Pro- 
•v-sses  for  Manufacturing  Steel,  from  the  Report  of  Abram  S.  Hewitt 
United  States  Commissioner  to  the  Universal  Exposition,  Paris,  1867. 
I2mo.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  #3-OO 

LARDEN.— A  School  Course  on  Heat : 
By  W.  LARDEN,  M.  A.    321  pp.  I2mo $2.00 

GARDNER. — The  Steam-Engine: 
For  the  Use  of  Beginners.    By  DR.  LARDNER.   Illustrated.    12010. 


HENRY  CAREY   BAIRD   &  CO.'S   CATALOGUE.        17 

&ARKIN. — The  Practical  Brass  and  Iron  Founder's  Guide; 
A  Concise  Treatise  on  Brass  Founding,  Moulding,  the  Metals  and 
their  Alloys,  etc.;  to  which  are  added  Recent  Improvements  in  the 
Manufacture  of  Iron,  Steel  by  the  Bessemer  Process,  etc.,  etc.  By 
JAMES  LARKIN,  late  Conductor  of  the  Bras*  Foundry  Department  in 
Reany,  Neafie  &  Co.'s  Penn  Works,  Philadelphia.  Fifth  edition, 
revised,  with  extensive  additions.  I2mo.  .  .  .  $2.2$ 

UEROUX. — A    Practical     Treatise     on    the    Manufacture    of 

Worsteds  and  Carded  Yarns  : 

Comprising  Practical  Mechanics,  with  Rules  and  Calculations  applied 
to  Spinning;  Sorting,  Cleaning,  and  Scouring  Wools;  the  English 
and  French  Methods  of  Combing,  Drawing,  and  Spinning  Worsteds, 
and  Manufacturing  Carded  Yarns.  Translated  from  the.  French;of 
CHARLES  LEROUX,  Mechanical  Engineer  and  Superintendent  of  a 
Spinning-Mill,  by  HORATIO  PAINE,  M.  D.,  and  A.  A.  FESQUET, 
Chemist  and  Engineer.  Illustrated  by  twelve  large  Plates.  To  which 
is  added  an  Appendix,  containing  Extracts  from  the  Reports  of  the 
International  Jury,  and  of  the  Artisans  selected  by  the  Committee 
appointed  by  the  Council  of  the  Society  of  Arts,  London,  on  Woolen 
and  Worsted  Machinery  and  Fabrics,  as  exhibited  in  the  Paris  Uni- 
versal Exposition,  1867.  8vo.  $5«oo 

LEFFEL. — The  Construction  of  Mill-Dams : 
Comprising  also  the  Building  of  Race  and  Reservoir  Embankments 
and   Head-Gates,  the   Measurement  of  Streams,  Gauging  of  Water 
Supply,  etc.     By  JAMES  LEFFEL  &  Co.    Illustrated  by  58  engravings. 
8vo. $2.50 

LESLIE. — Complete  Cookery: 

Directions  for  Cookery  in  its  Various  Branches.  By  Miss  LESLIE. 
Sixtieth  thousand.  Thoroughly  revised,  with  the  addition  of  New 
Receipts.  In  I2mo.,  cloth $1.50 

LIEBER. — Assayer's  Guide  : 

Or,  Practical  Directions  to  Assayers,  Miners,  and  Smelters,  for  the 
Tests  and  Assays,  by  Heat  and  by  Wet  Processes,  for  the  Ores  of  all 
the  principal  Metals,  of  Gold  and  Silver  Coins  and  Alloys,  and  of 
Coal,  etc.  By  OSCAR  M.  LIEBER.  121110.  .  .  .  $1.25 

Lockwood's  Dictionary  of  Terms  : 

Used  in  the  Practice  of  Mechanical  Engineering,  embracing  those 
Current  in  the  Drawing  Office,  Pattern  Shop,  Foundry,  Fitting,  Turn- 
ing, Smith's  and  Boiler  Shops,  etc.,  etc.,  comprising  upwards  of  Six 
Thousand  Definitions.  Edited  by  a  Foreman  Pattern  Maker,  author 
of  "-Pattern  Making."  417  pp.  I2mo.  .  .  .  $3.00 

tOVE. — The  Art  of  Dyeing,  Cleaning,  Scouring,  and  Finish' 

ing,  on  the  Most  Approved  English  and  French  Methods : 
Being  Practical  Instructions  in  Dyeing  Silks,  Woolens,  and  Cottons, 
Feathers,  Chips,  Straw,  etc.  Scouring  and  Cleaning  Bed  and  Win- 
dow  Curtains,  Carpets,  Rugs,  etc.  French  and  English  Cleaning, 
any  Color  or  Fabric  of  Silk,  Satin,  or  Damask.  By  THOMAS  LOVE, 
a  Working  Dyer  and  Scourer»  Second  American  Edition,  to  which 


t8         HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 

are  added  General  Instructions  for  the  use  of  Aniline  Colors.     8vo. 

343  PaSes 

LUKIN.— Amongst  Machines; 

Embracing  Descriptions  of  the  various  Mechanical  Appliances  used, 
in  the  Manufacture  of  Wood,  Metai,  and  other  Substances.  J2mo. 

*>-75 
LUKIN.— The  Boy  Engineers: 

What  They  Did,  and  How  They  Did  It.     With  30  plates.    l8mo. 

LUKIN.— The  Young  Mechanic  : 

Practical  Carpentiy.  Containing  Directions  for  the  Use  of  all  kinds 
of  Tools,  and  for  Construction  of  Steam- Engines  and  Mechanical 
Models,  including  the  Art  of  Turning  in  Wood  and  Metal.  By  JOHN 
LUKIN,  Author  of  "The  Lathe  and  Its  Uses,"  etc.  Illustrated. 
I2mo $i-75 

MAIN  and  BROWN. — Questions  on  Subjecte  Connected  with 

the  Marine  Steam- Engine : 

And  Examination  Papers;  with  Hints  for  their  Solution.  By 
THOMAS  J.  MAIN,  Professor  of  Mathematics,  Royal  Naval  College, 
and  THOMAS  BROWN,  Chief  Engineer,  R.  N.  I2mo.,  cloth  .  $1.50 

MAIN  and  BROWN.— The  Indicator  and  Dynamometer: 
With  their  Practical  Applications  to  the  Steam-Engine.     By  THOMAS 
J.  MAIN,   M.  A.  F.  R.,   Ass't    S.    Professor    Royal   Naval   College, 
Portsmouth,  and  THOMAS  BROWN,  Assoc.  Inst.  C.  E.,  Chief  Engineer 
R.  N.,  attached  to  the  R.  N.  College.     Illustrated.     8vo.  .         $1.50 

MAIN  and  BROWN.— The  Marine  Steam-Engine. 

By  THOMAS  J.  MAIN,  F.  R.  Ass't  S.  Mathematical  Professor  at  the 
Royal  Naval  College,  Portsmouth,  and  THOMAS  BROWN,  Assoc. 
Inst.  C.  E.,  Chief  Engineer  R.  N.  Attached  to  the  Royal  Naval 
College.  With  numerous  illustrations.  8vo.  .  .  .  $5.00 

MARTIN.— Screw-Cutting  Tables,  for  the  Use  of  Mechanical 

Engineers : 

Showing  the  Proper  Arrangement  of  Wheels  for  Cutting  the  Threads 
of  Screws  of  any  Required  Pitch ;  with  a  Table  for  Making  the  Uni- 
versal Gas-Pipe  Thread  and  Taps.  By  W.  A.  MARTIN,  Engineer. 
8vo. 50 

MICHELL.— Mine  Drainage: 

Being  a  Complete  and  Practical  Treatise  on  Direct-Acting  Under- 
ground Steam  Pumping  Machinery.  With  a  Description  of  a  largo 
number  of  the  best  known  Engines,  their  General  Utility  and  the 
Special  Sphere  of  their  Action,  the  Mode  of  their  Application,  and 
their  Merits  compared  with  other  Pumping  Machinery.  By  STEPHEN 
MICHELL.  Illustrated  by  137  engravings.  8vo.,  277  pages  .  $6.00 

MOLESWORTH.— Pocket-Book    of    Useful     Formulae     and 

Memoranda  for  Civil  and  Mechanical  Engineers. 
By  GUILFORD  L.  MOLESWORTH,  Member  of  the  Institution  of  Civil 
Engineers,  Chief  Resident  Engineer  of  the  Ceylon  Railway.     Full- 
bound  in  Pocket-book  form      .         .        .        .        .        •        $1.00 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE.         19 

MOORE. — The  Universal  Assistant  and  the  Complete  Me- 
chanic : 

Containing  over  one  million  Industrial  Facts,  Calculations,  Receipts, 
Processes,  Trades  Secrets,  Rules,  Business  Forms,  Legal  Items,  Etc., 
in  every  occupation,  from  the  Household  to  the  Manufactory.  By 
R.  MOORE.  Illustrated  by  500  Engravings.  I2mo.  .  $2.50 

MORRIS. — Easy  Rules  for  the  Measurement  of  Earthworks  : 
By  means  of  the  Prismoidal  Formula.  Illustrated  with  Numeroui 
Wood-Cuts,  Problems,  and  Examples,  and  concluded  by  an  Exten- 
sive Table  for  finding  the  Solidity  in  cubic  yards  from  Mean  Areas. 
The  whole  being  adapted  for  convenient  use  by  Engineers,  Surveyors, 
Contractors,  and  others  needing  Correct  Measurements  of  Earthwork. 
By  ELWOOD  MORRIS,  C.  E.  8vo $1.50 

MORTON. — The  System  of  Calculating  Diameter,  Circumfer- 
ence, Area,  and  Squaring  the  Circle : 

Together  with  Interest  and  Miscellaneous  Tables,  and  other  informa- 
tion. By  JAMES  MORTON.  Second  Edition,  enlarged,  with  the 
Metric  System.  121110 $1.00 

NAPIER.— Manual  of  Electro-Metallurgy: 

Including  the  Application  of  the  Art  to  Manufacturing  Processes. 
By  JAMES  NAPIER.  Fourth  American,  from  the  Fourth  London 
edition,  revised  and  enlarged.  Illustrated  by  engravings.  8vo.  $1.50 

NAPIER. — A  System  of  Chemistry  Applied  to  Dyeing. 

By  JAMES  NAPIER,  F.  C.  S.  'A  New  and  Thoroughly  Revised  Edi- 
tion. Completely  brought  up  to  the  present  state  of  the  Science, 
including  the  Chemistry  of  Coal  Tar  Colors,  by  A.  A.  FESQUET, 
Chemist  and  Engineer.  With  an  Appendix  on  Dyeing  and  Calico 
Printing,  as  shown  at  the  Universal  Exposition,  Paris,  1867.  Illus- 
trated. 8vo.  422  pages $5-oo 

NEVILLE.— Hydraulic  Tables,  Coefficients,  and  Formulae,  for 
finding  the  Discharge  of  Water  from  Orifices,  Notches, 
Weirs,  Pipes,  and  Rivers : 

Third  Edition,  with  Additions,  consisting  of  New  Formulae  for  the 
Discharge  from  Tidal  and  Flood  Sluices  and  Siphons ;  general  infor- 
mation on  Rainfall,  Catchment-Basins,  Drainage,  Sewerage,  Water 
Supply  for  Towns  and  Mill  Power.  By  IOHN  NEVILLE,  C.  E.  M.  R, 
I.  A. ;  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Geological  Society  of  Ireland.  Thick 
I2mo I5.5O 

NEWBERY.— Gleanings     from     Ornamental     Art    of    every 

style : 

Drawn  from  Examples  in  the  British,  South  Kensington,  Indian, 
Crystal  Palace,  and  other  Museums,  the  Exhibitions  of  1851  and 
1862,  and  the  best  English  and  Foreign  works.  In  a  series  of  100 
exquisitely  drawn  Plates,  containing  many  hundred  examples.  By 
ROBERT  NEWBERY.  410. $12.50 

NICHOLLS.  —The  Theoretical  and  Practical  Boiler-Maker  and 

Engineer's  Reference  Book: 

Containing  a  variety  of  Useful  Information  for  Employers  of  Labor. 
Foremen  and  Working  Boiler-Makers,  Iroa,  Copper,  and  Tinsmith*. 


CO         HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 

Draughtsmen,  Engineers,  the  General  Steam-using  Public,  and  for  the 
Use  of  Science  Schools  and  Classes.  By  SAMUEL  NICHOLLS.  Illus. 
trated  by  sixteen  plates,  I2mo.  .....  $2.50 

NICHOLSON.— A  Manual  of  the  Art  of  Bookbinding : 

Containing  full  instructions  in  the  different  Branches  of  Forwarding, 
Gilding,  and  Finishing.  Also,  the  Art  of  Marbling  Book-edges  and 
Paper.  By  JAMES  B.  NICHOLSON.  Illustrated.  I2mo.,  cloth  $2.25 

NICOLLS.— The  Railway  Builder: 

A  Hand-Book  for  Estimating  the  Probable  Cost  of  American  Rail- 
way Construction  and  Equipment.  By  WILLIAM  J.  NICOLLS,  Civil 
Engineer.  Illustrated,  full  bound,  pocket-book  form  .  $2.00 

NORMANDY.— The  Commercial  Handbook  of  Chemical  An- 

alysis : 

Or  Practical  Instructions  for  the  Determination  of  the  Intrinsic  or 
Commercial  Value  of  Substances  used  in  Manufactures,  in  Trades, 
and  in  the  Arts.  By  A.  NORMANDY.  New  Edition,  Enlarged,  and 
to  a  great  extent  rewritten.  By  HENRY  M.  NOAD,  Ph.D.,.  F.R.S., 
thick  I2mo $5.00 

NORRIS. — A  Handbook  for  Locomotive   Engineers  and  Ma- 

chinists :  . 

Comprising  the  Proportions  and  Calculations  for  Constructing  Loco, 
motives;  Manner  of  Setting  Valves;  Tables  cf  Squares,  Cubes,  Areas, 
etc.,  etc.  By  SEPTIMUS  NORRIS,  M.  E.  New  edition.  Illustrated, 
I2mo :  $1.50 

KYSTROM. — A  New  Treatise  on  Elements  of  Mechanics : 
Establishing  Strict  Precision  in  the   Meaning  of  Dynamical  Terms  • 
accompanied  with  an  Appendix  on  Duodenal  Arithmetic  and   Me* 
trology.     By  JOHN  W.  NYSTROM,  C.  E.     Illustrated.     8vo.       $2.00 

NYSTROM. — On  Technological  Education  and  the  Construc- 
tion of  Ships  and  Screw  Propellers : 

For  Naval  and  Marine  Engineers.  By  JOHN  W.  NYSTROM,  late 
Acting  Chief  Engineer,  U.  S.  N.  Second  edition,  revised,  with  addi- 

•    tional  matter.     Illustrated  by  seven  engravings.      I2mo.     .         $1.50 

O'NEILL. — A  Dictionary  of  Dyeing  and  Calico  Printing: 

Containing  a  brief  account  of  all  the  Substances  and  Processes  in 
£se  in  the  Art  of  Dyeing  and  Printing  Textile  Fabrics  ;  with  Practical 
Receipts  and  Scientific  Information.  By  CHARLES  O'NEILL,  Analy- 
tical Chemist.  To  which  is  added  an  Essay  on  Coal  Tar  Colors  and 
their  application  to  Dyeing  and  Calico  Printing.  By  A.  A.  FESQUET, 
Chemist  and  Engineer.  With  an  appendix  on  Dyeing  and  Calico 
Printing,  as  shown  at  the  Universal  Exposition,  Paris,  1867,  8vo., 
491  pages $5.00 

ORTON. — Underground  Treasures-. 

How  and  Where  to  Find  Them.  A  Key  for  the  Ready  Determination 
of  all  the  Useful  Minerals  within  the  United  States.  By  JAMES 
ORTON,  A.M.,  Late  Professor  of  Natural  History  in  Vassar  College, 
N.  Y.;  Cor.  Mem.  of  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences,  Philadelphia, 
and  of  the  Lyceum  of  Natural  History,  New  York ;  author  of  the 
'•  Andes  and  the  Amazon,"  etc.  A  New  Edition,  with  Additions. 
Illustrated $1.50 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 


OSBORN. — The  Metallurgy  of  Iron  and  Steel: 

Theoretical  and  Practical  in  all  its  Branches ;  with  special  re^rencc 
to  American  Materials  and  Processes.  By  II.  S.  O-.BORN,  LL.  D., 
Professor  of  Mining  and  Metallurgy  in  Lafayette  College,  Easton, 
Pennsylvania.  Illustrated  by  numerous  large  folding  plates  and 
wood-engravings.  8vo.  ......  $25.00 

OSBORN.— A  Practical  Manual  of  Minerals,  Mines  and  Min- 
ing : 

Comprising  the  Physical  Properties,  Geologic  Positions,  Local  Occur- 
rence and  Associations  of  the  Useful  Minerals;  their  Methods  of 
Chemical  Analysis  and  Assay :  together  with  Various  Systems  of 
Excavating  and  Timbering,  Brick  and  Masonry  Work,  during  Driv- 
ing, Lining,  Bracing  and  other  Operations,  etc.  By  Prof.  H.  S. 
OSBORN,  LL.  D.,  Author  of  the  "  Metallurgy  of  Iron  and  Steel." 
Illustrated  by  171  engravings  from  original  drawings.  8vo.  $4.50 

OVERMAN.— The  Manufacture  of  Steel : 

Containing  the  Practice  and  Principles  of  Working  and  Making  Steel. 
A  Handbook  for  Blacksmiths  and  Worken,  in  Steel  and  Iron,  Wagon 
Makers,  Die  Sinkers,  Cutlers,  and  Manufacturers  of  Files  and  Hard- 
ware, of  Steel  and  Iron,  and  for  Men  of  Science  and  Art.  By 
FREDERICK  OVERMAN,  Mining  Engineer,  Author  of  the  "  Manu- 
facture of  Iron,"  etc.  A  new,  enlarged,  and  revised  Edition.  By 
A.  A.  FESQUET,  Chemist  and  Engineer.  12 mo.  .  .  $1.50 

OVERMAN. — The  Moulder's  and  Founder's  Pocket  Guide  : 
A  Treatise  on  Moulding  and  P'ounding  in  Green-sand,  Dry  sand,  Loam, 
and  Cement;  the  Moulding  of  Machine  Frames,  Mill-gear,  Hollow* 
ware,  Ornaments,  Trinkets,  Bells,  and  Statues;  Description  of  Moulds 
for  Iron,  Bronze,  Brass,  and  other  Metals;  Plaster  of  Paris,  Sulphur, 
Wax,  etc. ;  the  Construction  of  Melting  Furnaces,  the  Melting  and 
Founding  of  Metals  ;  the  Composition  of  Alloys  and  their  Nature, 
etc.,  etc.  By  FREDERICK  OVERMAN,  M.  E.  A  new  Edition,  to 
which  is  added  a  Supplement  on  Statuary  and  Ornamental  Moulding, 
Ordnance,  Malleable  Iron  Castings,  etc.  By  A.  A.  FESQUET,  Chem- 
ist and  Engineer.  Illustrated  by  44  engravings.  I2mo.  .  $2.OO 

PAINTER,  GILDER,  AND  VARNISHER'S  COMPANION: 

v  Containing  Rules  and  Regulations  in  everything  relating  to  the  AnS 
of  Painting,  Gilding,  Varnishing,  Glass-Staining,  Graining,  Marbling, 
Sign- Writing,  Gilding  on  Glass,  and  Coach  Painting  and  Varnishing; 
Tests  for  the  Detection  of  Adulterations  in  Oils,  Colors,  etc.;  and  a 
Statement  of  the  Diseases  to  which  Painters  are  peculiarly  liable,  \\  itb 
the  Simplest  and  Best  Remedies.  Sixteenth  Edition.  Revised,  with 
an  Appendix.  Containing  Colors  and  Coloring — Theoretical  and 
Practical.  Comprising  descriptions  of  a  great  variety  of  Additional 
Pigments,  their  Qualities  and  Uses,  to  which  are  added,  Dryers,  and 
Modes  and  Operations  of  Painting,  etc.  Together  with  Chevrcul's 
Principles  of  ll.innony  and  Contrast  of  Colors.  I2mo.  Cloth  $1.50 

PALLETT.— The  Miller's,  Millwright's,  and  Engineer's  Guide, 
By  HENRY  PALLETT.  Illustrated.  121110.  .  .  . 


22         HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 

PERCY. — The  Manufacture  of  Russian  Sheet-Iron. 

By  JOHN  PERCY,  M.  D.,  F.  R.  S.,  Lecturer  on  Metallurgy  at  the 
Royal  School  of  Mines,  and  to  The  Advance  Class  of  Artillery 
Officers  at  the  Royal  Artillery  Institution,  Woolwich;  Author  of 
"  Metallurgy."  With  Illustrations.  8vo.,  paper  .  .  50  cts. 

PERKINS.— Gas  and  Ventilation  : 

Practical  Treatise  on  Gas  and  Ventilation.  With  Special  Relation 
to  Illuminating,  Heating,  and  Cooking  by  Gas.  Including  Scientific 
Helps  to  Engineer-students  and  others.  With  Illustrated  Diagrams. 
By  E.  E.  PERKINS.  I2mo.,  cloth #1.25 

PERKINS  AND  STOWE.— A  New  Guide  to  the  Sheet-iron 

and  Boiler  Plate  Roller  : 

Containing  a  Series  of  Tables  showing  the  Weight  of  Slabs  and  Piles 
to  Produce  Boiler  Plates,  and  of  the  Weight  of  Piles  and  the  Sizes  of 
Bars  to  produce  Sheet-iron ;  the  Thickness  of  the  Bar  Gaugft 
in  decimals ;  the  Weight  per  foot,  and  the  Thickness  on  the  Bar  or 
Wire  Gauge  of  the  fractional  parts  of  an  inch;  the  ; Weight  per 
sheet,  and  the  Thickness  on  the  Wire  Gauge  of  Sheet-iron  of  various 
dimensions  to  weigh  1 12  Ibs.  per  bundle;  and  the  conversion  of 
Short  Weight  into  Long  Weight,  and  Long  Weight  into  Short. 
Estimated  and  collected  by  G.  H.  PERKINS  and  J.  G.  STOWE.  $2.53 

POWELI — CHANCE— HARRIS.— The    Principles  of  Glass 

Making. 

By  HARRY  J.  POWELL,  B.  A.  Together  with  Treatises  on  Crown  and 
Sheet  Glass;  by  HENRY  CHANCE,  M.  A.  And  Plate  Glass,  by  H. 
G.  HARRIS,  Asso.  M.  Inst.  C.  E.  Illustrated  i8mo.  .  $1.50 

PROCTOR.— A  Pocket-Book  of  Useful  Tables  and  Formula 

for  Marine  Engineers  : 

By  FRANK  PROCTOR.  Second  Edition,  Revised  and  Enlarged. 
Full -bound  pocket-book  form $1.50 

REGNAULT.— Elements  of  Chemistry: 

By  M.  V.  REGNAULT.  Translated  from  the  French  by  T.  FORREST 
BETTON,  M.  D.,  and  edited,  with  Notes,  by  JAMES  C.  BOOTH,  Melter 
and  Refiner  U.  S.  Mint,  and  WILLIAM  L.  FABER,  Metallurgist  and 
Mining  Engineer.  Illustrated  by  nearly  700  wood-engravings.  Com- 
prising nearly  1,500  pages.  In  two  volumes,  8vo.,  cloth  .  £7.50 

RICHARDS.— Aluminium : 

Its  History,  Occurrence,  Properties,  Metallurgy  and  Applications, 
including  its  Alloys.  By  JOSEPH  W.  RICHARDS,  A.  C.,  Chemist  and 
Practical  Metallurgist,  Member  of  the  Deutsche  Chemische  Gesell- 
schaft.  Illustrated  by  16  engravings.  12  mo.  346  pages  $2.50 

RIFFAULT,  VERGNAUD,  and  TOUSSAINT.— A  Practical 

Treatise  on  the  Manufacture  of  Colors  for  Painting : 
Comprising  the  Origin,  Definition,  and  Classification  of  Colors;  the 
Treatment  of  the  Raw  Materials ;  the  best  Formulae  and  the  Newest 
Processes  for  the  Preparation  of  every  description  of  Pigment,  and 
the  Necessary  Apparatus  and  Directions  for  its  Use;  Dryers;  the 
Testing,  Application,  and  Qualities  of  Paints,  etc.,  etc.  By  MM. 
RIFFAULT,  VERGNAUD,  and  TOUSSAINT.  Revised  and  Edited  by  M. 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE.          23 

F.  MALEPEYRE.  Translated  from  the  French,  by  A.  A.  FESQUET; 
Chemist  and  Engineer.  Illustrated  by  Eighty  engravings.  In  one 
vol.,  8vo.,  650  pages $7-5° 

ROPER.— A  Catechism  of  High-Pressure,  or  Non-Condensing 

Steam-Engines : 

Including  the  Modelling,  Constructing,  and  Management  of  Steam* 
Engines  and  Steam  Boilers.  With  valuable  illustrations.  By  STE- 
PHEN ROPER,  Engineer.  Sixteenth  edition,  revised  and  enlarged. 
i8mo.,  tucks,  gilt  edge #2.00 

ROPER. — Engineer's  Handy-Book: 

Containing  a  full  Explanation  of  the  Steam-Engine  Indicator,  and  its 
Use  and  Advantages  to  Engineers  and  Steam  Users.  With  Formulae 
for  Estimating  the  Power  of  all  Classes  of  Steam-Engines;  also, 
Facts,  Figures,  Questions,  and  Tables  for  Engineers  who  wish  to 
qualify  themselves  for  the  United  States  Navy,  the  Revenue  Service, 
the  Mercantile  Marine,  or  to  take  charge  of  the  Better  Class  of  Sta- 
tionary Steam-Engines.  Sixth  edition.  i6mo..  690  pages,  tucks, 
gilt  edge  . .  #3.50 

ROPER. — Hand-Book  of  Land  and  Marine  Engines  : 

Including  the  Modelling,  Construction,  Running,  and  Management 
of  Lane'  and  Marine  Engines  and  Boilers.  With  illustrations.  By 
STEPHEN  ROPER,  Engineer.  Sixth  edition.  I2mo.,tx-cks,  gilt  edge. 

#3-5° 
ROPER.— Hand-Book  of  the  Locomotive  : 

Including  the  Construction  of  Engines  and  Boilers,  and  the  Construc- 
tion, Management,  and  Running  of  Locomotives.  By  STEPHEN 
ROPER.  Eleventh  edition.  i8mo.,  tucks,  gilt  edge  .  $2.50 

ROPER. — Hand-Book  of  Modern  Steam  Fire-Engines. 
With  illustrations.     By  STEPHEN  ROPER,  Engineer.     Fourth  edition, 
I2mo.,  tucks,  gilt  edge       .......         $3-$O 

ROPER. — Questions  and  Answers  for  Engineers. 

This  little  book  contains  all  the  Questions  that  Engineers  will  be 
asked  when  undergoing  an  Examination  for  the  purpose  of  procuring 
Licenses,  and  they  are  so  plain  that  any  Engineer  or  Fireman  of  or 
dinary  intelligence  may  commit  them  to  memory  in  a  short  time.  By 
STEPHEN  ROPER,  Engineer.  Third  edition  .  .  .  #3.00 

ROPER. — Use  and  Abuse  of  the  Steam  Boiler. 
By  STEPHEN  ROPER,  Engineer.     Eighth  edition,  with   illustrations. 
i8mo.,  tucks,  gilt  edge $2.00 

ROSE. — The  Complete  Practical  Machinist: 

Embracing  Lathe  Work,  Vise  Work,  Drills  and  Drilling,  Taps  and 
Dies,  Hardening  and  Tempering,  the  Making  and  Use  of  Tools, 
Tool  Grinding,  Marking  out  Work,  etc.  By  JOSHUA  ROSE.  Illus- 
trated by  356  engravings.  Thirteenth  edition,  thoroughly  revised 
and  in  great  part  rewritten.  In  one  vol.,  I2mo.,  439  pages  $2.501 

ROSE. — Mechanical  Drawing  Self-Taught: 
Comprising  Instructions  in  the  Selection  and  Preparation  of  Drawing 
Instruments,  Elementary  Instruction  in  Practical  Mechanical  Draw- 


24         HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 

ing,  together  with  Examples  in  Simple  Geometry  and  Elementary 
Mechanism,  including  Screw  Threads,  Gear  Wheels,  Mechanical 
Motions,  Engines  and  Boilers.  By  JOSHUA  ROSE,  M.  E.  Illustrated 
by  330  engravings.  8vo  ,313  pages  ....  $4.00 

ROSE. — The  Slide- Valve  Practically  Explained: 

Embracing  simple  and  complete  Practical  Demonstrations  of  the 
operation  of  each  element  in  a  Slide-valve  Movement,  and  illustrat* 
ing  the  effects  of  Variations  in  their  Proportions  by  examples  care- 
fully selected  from  the  most  recent  and  successful  practice.  By 
JOSHUA  ROSE,  M.  E.  Illustrated  by  35  engravings  .  $1.00 

ROSS. — The  Blowpipe  in  Chemistry,  Mineralogy  and  Geology: 
Containing  all  Known  Methods  of  Anhydrous  Analysis,  many  Work- 
ing Examples,  and  Instructions  for  Making  Apparatus.  By  LiEUT.- 
COLONEL  W.  A.  Ross,  R.  A.,  F.  G.  S.  With  120  Illustrations. 
I2mo $2.00 

SHAW.— Civil  Architecture : 

Being  a  Complete  Theoretical  and  Practical  System  of  Building,  con- 
taining the  Fundamental  Principles  of  the  Art.  By  EDWARD  SHAW, 
Architect,  To  which  is  added  a  Treatise  on  Gothic  Architecture,  etc. 
By  THOMAS  W.  SILLOWAY  and  GEORGE  M.  HARDING,  Architects. 
The  whole  illustrated  by  102  quarto  plates  finely  engraved  on  copper. 
Eleventh  edition.  4to.  .......  $10.00 

SHUNK. — A  Practical  Treatise  on  Railway  Curves  and  Loca- 
tion, for  Young  Engineers. 
By  W.  F.  SHUNK,  C.  E.     I2mo.    Full  bound  pocket-book  form  $2.00 

SLATER. — The  Manual  of  Colors  and  Dye  Wares. 
By  J.  W.  SLATER.     i2mo $3-75 

SLOAN. — American  Houses  : 

A  variety  of  Original  Designs  for  Rural  Buildings.  Illustrated  by 
26  colored  engravings,  with  descriptive  references.  By  SAMUEL 
SLOAN,  Architect.  8vo. $i-5<> 

SLOAN. — Homestead  Architecture  : 

Containing  Forty  Designs  for  Villas,  Cottages,  and  Farm-houses,  with 
Essays  on  Style,  Construction,  Landscape  Gardening,  Furniture,  etc., 
etc.  Illustrated  by  upwards  of  200  engravings.  By  SAMUEL  SLOAN, 
Architect.  8vo $3- 50 

SLOANE. — Home  Experiments  in  Science. 
By  T.  O'CoNOR  SLOANE,  E.  M.,  A.  M.,  Ph.D.     Illustrated  by  91 
engravings.     I2mo. $1.50 

SMEATON. — Builder's  Pocket-Companion : 

Containing  the  Elements  of  Building,  Surveying,  and  Architecture ; 

with  Practical  Rules  and  Instructions  connected  with  the  subject. 

By  A.  C.  SMEATON,  Civil  Engineer,  etc.     I2mo.       .        .        #1.50 
SMITH.— A  Manual  of  Political  Economy. 

By  E.  PESHINE  SMITH.    A  New  Edition,  to  which  is  added  a  full 

Index.      I2mo.  .          ,          .          .          .          ,          .          .  I.2v 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE.         2$ 

SMITH. — Parks  and  Pleasure-Grounds  : 

Or  Practical  Notes  on  Country  Residences,  Villas,  Public  Parks,  and 
Gardens.  By  CHARLES  H.  J.  SMITH,  Landscape  Gardener  and 
Garden  Architect,  etc.,  etc.  I2mo.  ....  $2.00 

SMITH.— The  Dyer's  Instructor: 

Comprising  Practical  Instructions  in  the  Art  of  Dyeing  Silk,  Cotton, 
Wool,  and  Worsted,  and  Woolen  Goods ;  containing  nearly  800 
Receipts.  To  which  is  added  a  Treatise  on  the  Art  of  Padding;  and 
the  Printing  of  Silk  Warps,  Skeins,  and  Handkerchiefs,  and  the 
various  Mordants  and  Colors  for  the  different  styles  of  such  work. 
By  DAVID  SMITH,  Pattern  Dyer.  i2mo.  .  .  .  $3.00 

SMYTH.— A  Rudimentary  Treatise  on  Coal  and  Coal-Mining. 
By  WARRINGTON  W.  SMYTH,  M.  A.,  F.  R.  G.,  President  R.  G.  S. 
of  Cornwall.     Fifth  edition,  revised  and  corrected.     With  numer- 
ous illustrations.     I2mo.  .         .         .         .         .         .         $1-75 

SNIVELY. — A  Treatise  on  the  Manufacture  of  Perfumes  and 

Kindred  Toilet  Articles. 

By  JOHN  H.  SNIVELY,  Phr.  D.,  Professor  of  Analytical  Chemistry  in 
the  Tennessee  College  of  Pharmacy.  8vo.  .  .  .  $3-OO 

SNIVELY.— Tables  for  Systematic  Qualitative  Chemical  Anal- 
ysis. 
By  JOHN  H.  SNIVELY,  Phr.  D.     8vo.        .  $1.00 

SNIVELY. — The  Elements  of  Systematic  Qualitative  Chemical 

Analysis : 

A  Hand-book  for  Beginners.    By  JOHN  H.  SNIVELY,  Phr.  D.    i6mo. 

$2.00 

STEWART.— The  American  System  : 

Speeches  on  the  Tariff  Question,  and  on  Internal  Improvements, 
principally  delivered  in  the  House  of  Representatives  of  the  United 
States.  By  ANDREW  STEWART,  late  M.  C.  from  Pennsylvania. 
With  a  Portrait,  and  a  Biographical  Sketch.  8vo.  .  .  $3.00 

STOKES. — The  Cabinet  Maker  and  Upholsterer's  Companion-. 
Comprising  the  Art  of  Drawing,  as  applicable  to  Cabinet  Work; 
Veneering,  Inlaying,  and  Buhl- Work;  the  Art  of  Dyeing  and  Stain- 
ing Wood,  Ivory,  Bone,  Tortoise-Shell,  etc.  Directions  for  Lacker- 
ing, Japanning,  and  Varnishing;  to  make  French  Polish,  Glues, 
Cements,  and  Compositions;  with  numerous  Receipts,  useful  to  work- 
men generally.  By  J.  STOKES.  Illustrated.  A  New  Edition,  with 
an  Appendix  upon  French  Polishing,  Staining,  Imitating,  Varnishing, 
etc.,  etc.  I2mo $1.25 

STRENGTH  AND  OTHER  PROPERTIES  OF  METALS; 
Reports  of  Experiments  on  the  Strength  and  other  Properties  of 
Metals  for  Cannon.  With  a  Description  of  the  Machines  for  Testing 
Metals,  and  of  the  Classification  of  Cannon  in  service.  By  Officers 
of  the  Ordnance  Department,  U.  S.  Army..  By  authority  of  the  Secre- 
tary of  War.  Illustrated  by  25  large  steel  plat.es.  Quarto  .  $10.00 

SULLIVAN.— Protection  to  Native  Industry. 

By  Sir  EDWARD  SULLIVAN,  Baronet,  anther  of  "  T«n  Chapters  on 
Social  Reforms."  8vo i.ro 


*6         HENRY  CAREY  BAIRL>  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 


SYME. — Outlines  of  an  Industrial  Science. 

By  DAVID  SYME.     I2mo.  .  ...         $2.oa 

TABLES     SHOWING     THE     WEIGHT      OF     ROUND, 

SQUARE,  AND  FLAT  BAR  IRON,  STEEL,  ETC., 
By  Measurement.     Cloth 63 

TAYLOR.— Statistics  of  Coal : 

Including  Mineral  Bituminous  Substances  employed  in  Arts  and 
Manufactures;  with  their  Geographical,  Geological,  and  Commercial 
Distribution  and  Amount  of  Production  and  Consumption  on  the 
American  Continent.  With  Incidental  Statistics  of  the  Iron  Manu- 
facture. By  R.  C.  TAYLOR.  Second  edition,  revised  by  S.  S.  HALDE- 
MAN.  Illustrated  by  five  Maps  and  many  wood  engravings.  8vo., 
cloth $10.00 

TEMPLETON. — The  Practical  Examinator  on  Steam  and  the 

Steam- Engine: 

With  Instructive  References  relative  thereto,  arranged  for  the  Use  of 
Engineers,  Students,  and  others.  By  WILLIAM  TEMPLETON,  En- 
gineer.  I2mo.  ........  $1.25 

THAU  SING.— The  Theory  and  Practice  of  the  Preparation  of 

Malt  and  the  Fabrication  of  Beer : 

With  especial  reference  to  the  Vienna  Process  of  Brewing.  Elab- 
orated from  personal  experience  by  JULIUS  E.  THAUSING,  Professor 
at  the  School  for  Brewers,  and  at  the  Agricultural  Institute,  Modling, 
near  Vienna.  Translated  from  the  German  by  WILLIAM  T.  BRANNT, 
Thoroughly  and  elaborately  edited,  with  much  American  matter,  and 
according  to  the  latest  and  most  Scientific  Practice,  by  A.  SCHWARZ 
and  DR.  A.  H.  BAUER.  Illustrated  by  140  Engravings.  8vo.,  815 
pages  ..........  $10.00 

THOMAS. — The  Modern  Practice  of  Photography: 

By  R.  W.  THOMAS,  F.  C.  S.    8vo.  ....  75 

THOMPSON. — Political  Economy.     With  Especial  Reference 

to  the  Industrial  History  of  Nations  : 

By  ROBERT  E.  THOMPSON,  M.  A.,  Professor  of  Social  Science  in  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania.  I2mo.  ....  $1.50 

THOMSON. — Freight  Charges  Calculator: 

By  ANDREW  THOMSON,  Freight  Agent.     2^mo.        .        .        $1.25 

TURNER'S  (THE)  COMPANION: 

Containing  Instructions  in  Concentric,  Elliptic,  and  Eccentric  Turn, 
ing;  also  various  Plates  of  Chucks,  Tools,  and  Instruments;  and 
Directions  for  using  the  Eccentric  Cutter,  Drill,  Vertical  Cutter,  and 
Circular  Rest;  with  Patterns  and  Instructions  for  working  them. 
I2mo $1.25 

TURNING :   Specimens  of  Fancy  Turning   Executed  on  the 

Hand  or  Foot- Lathe  : 

With  Geometric,  Oval,  and  Eccentric  Chucks,  and  Elliptical  Cutting 
Frame.  By  an  Amateur.  Illustrated  by  30  exquisite  Photographs. 
4to.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  $3.00 

0RBIN— BRULL.— A  Practical  Guide  for  Puddling  Iron  and 

Steel. 
By  ED.  URBIN,  Engineer  of  Arts  and  Manufactures.     A  Prize  Essay, 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 


read  before  the  Association  of  Engineers,  Graduate  of  the  School  of 
Mines,  of  Liege,  Belgium,  at  the  Meeting  of  1865-6.  To  which  is 
added  A  COMPARISON  OF  THE  RESISTING  PROPERTIES  OF  IRON  AND 
STEEL.  By  A.  BRULL.  Translated  from  the  P'rench  by  A.  A.  FES- 
QUET,  Chemist  and  Engineer.  8vo.  ....  $1.00 

VAILE. — Galvanized-Iron  Cornice-Worker's  Manual : 

Containing  Instructions  in  Laying  out  the  Different  Mitres,  and 
Making  Patterns  for  all  kinds  of  Plain  and  Circular  Work.  Also, 
Tables  of  Weights,  Areas  and  Circumferences  of  Circles,  and  oilier 
Matter  calculated  to  Benefit  the  Trade.  By  CHARLES  A.  VAILE. 
Illustrated  by  twenty-one  plates.  410.  ....  $5.00 

VILLE. — On  Artificial  Manures  : 

Their  Chemical  Selection  and  Scientific  Application  to  Agriculture. 
A  series  of  Lectures  given  at  the  Experimental  Farm  at  Vincennes, 
during  1867  and  1874-75.  By  M.  GEORGES  VILLE.  Translated  and 
Edited  by  WILLIAM  CROOKES,  F.  R.  S.  Illustrated  by  thirty-one 
engravings.  8vo.,  450  pages $6.00 

VILLE. — The  School  of  Chemical  Manures  : 

Or,  Elementary  Principles  in  the  Use  of  Fertilizing  Agents.  From 
the  French  of  M.  GEO.  VILLE,  by  A.  A.  FESQUET,  Chemist  and  En- 
gineer. With  Illustrations.  I2tno.  ....  $1.25 

VOGDES. — The  Architect's  and  Builder's  Pocket- Companion 

and  Price- Book : 

Consisting  of  a  Short  but  Comprehensive  Epitome  of  Decimals,  Duo- 
decimals, Geometry  and  Mensuration  ;  with  Tables  of  United  States 
Measures,  Sizes,  Weights,  Strengths,  etc.,  of  Iron,  Wood,  Stone, 
Brick,  Cement  and  Concretes,  Quantities  of  Materials  in  given  Sizes 
and  Dimensions  of  Wood,  Brick  and  Stone;  and  full  and  complete 
Bills  of  Prices  for  Carpenter's  Work  and  Painting ;  also,  Rules  for 
Computing  and  Valuing  Brick  and  Brick  Work,  Stone  Work,  Paint- 
ing, Plastering,  with  a  Vocabulary  of  Technical  Terms,  etc.  By 
FRANK  W.  VOGDES,  Architect,  Indianapolis,  Ind.  Enlarged,  revised, 
and  corrected.  In  one  volume,  368  pages,  full-bound,  pocket-book 

form,  gilt  edges $2.00 

Cloth         .  1.53 

WAHL. — Galvanoplastic  Manipulations  : 

A  Practical  Guide  lor  the  Gold  and  Silver  Electroplater  and  the  Gal- 
vanoplastic Operator.  Comprising  the  Electro-Deposition  of  all 
Metals  by  means  of  the  Battery  and  the  Dynamo-Electric  Machine, 
as  well  as  the  most  approved  Processes  of  Deposition  by  Simple  Im- 
mersion, with  Descriptions  of  Apparatus,  Chemical  Products  employed 
in  the  Art,  etc.  Based  largely  on  the  "  Manipulations  Hydroplas- 
tiques"  of  ALFRED  ROSELEUR.  By  WILLIAM  H.  WAHL,  Ph.  D. 
(Heid),  Secretary  of  the  Franklin  Institute.  Illustrated  by  189  en- 
gravings. 8vo.,  656  pages $7«5O  f 

WALTON.— Coal-Mining  Described  and  Illustrated : 

13y  THOMAS  H.  WALTON,  Mining  Engineer.  Illustrated  by  24  large 
and  elaborate  Plates,  after  Actual  Workings  and  Apparatus.  $5.00 


*8         HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 

WARE.— The  Sugar  Beet. 

\  Including  a  History  of  the  Beet  Sugar  Industry  in  Europe,  Varieties 
of  the  Sugar  Beet,  Examination,  Soils,  Tillage,  Seeds  and  Sowing, 
Yield  and  Cost  of  Cultivation,  Harvesting,  Transportation,  Conserva- 
tion, Feeding  Qualities  of  the  Beet  and  of  the  Pulp,  etc.  By  LEWIS 
S.  WARE,  C.  E.,  M.  E.  Illustrated  by  ninety  engravings.  8vo. 

$4.00 

WARN.— The  Sheet-Metal  Worker's  Instructor: 

For  Zinc,  Sheet-Iron,  Copper,  and  Tin-Plate  Workers,  etc.  Contain- 
ing  a  selection  of  Geometrical  Problems ;  also,  Practical  and  Simple 
Rules  for  Describing  the  various  Patterns  required  in  the  different 
branches  of  the  above  Trades.  By  REUBEN  H.  WARN,  Practical 
Tin-Plate  Worker.  To  which  is  added  an  Appendix,  containing 
Instructions  for  Boiler-Making,  Mensuration  of  Surfaces  and  Solids, 
Rules  for  Calculating  the  Weights  of  different  Figures  of  Iron  and 
Steel,  Tables  of  the  Weights  of  Iron,  Steel,  etc.  Illustrated  by  thirty- 
two  Plates  and  thirty-seven  Wood  Engravings.  8vo.  .  $3-OO 

WARNER. — New  Theorems,  Tables,  and  Diagrams,  for  the 
Computation  of  Earth-work : 

Designed  for  the  use  of  Engineers  in  Preliminary  and  Final  Estimates, 
of  Students  in  Engineering,  and  of  Contractors  and  other  non-profes. 
sional  Computers.  In  two  parts,  with  an  Appendix.  Part  I.  A  Prac- 
tical Treatise;  Part  II.  A  Theoretical  Treatise,  and  the  Appendix. 
Containing  Notes  to  the  Rules  and  Examples  of  Part  I.;  Explana* 
tions  of  the  Construction  of  Scales,  Tables,  and  Diagrams,  and  a 
Treatise  upon  Equivalent  Square  Bases  and  Equivalent  Level  Heights. 
The  whole  illustrated  by  numerous  original  engravings,  comprising 
explanatory  cuts  for  Definitions  and  Problems,  Stereometric  Scales 
and  Diagrams,  and  a  series  of  Lithographic  Drawings  from  Models : 
Showing  all  the  Combinations  of  Solid  Forms  which  occur  in  Railroad 
Excavations  and  Embankments.  By  JOHN  WARNER,  A.  M.,  Mining 
and  Mechanical  Engineer.  Illustrated  by  14  Plates.  A  new,  revised 
and  improved  edition.  8vo .  $4.00 

WATSON.— A  Manual  of  the  Hand-Lathe  : 

Comprising  Concise  Directions  for  Working  Metals  of  all  kinds, 
Ivory,  Bone  and  Precious  Woods;  Dyeing,  Coloring,  and  French 
Polishing;  Inlaying  by  Veneers,  and  various  methods  practised  to 
produce  Elaborate  work  with  Dispatch,  and  at  Small  Expense.  By 
EGBERT  P.  WATSON,  Author  of  "  The  Modern  Practice  of  American 
Machinists  and  Engineers."  Illustrated  by  78  engravings.  $1.50 

WATSON.— The  Modern  Practice  of  American  Machinists  and 

Engineers  : 

Including  the  Construction,  Application,  and  Use  of  Drills,  Lathe 
Tools,  Cutters  for  Boring  Cylinders,  and  Hollow-work  generally,  with 
the  most  Economical  Speed  for  the  same ;  the  Results  verified  by 
Actual  Practice  at  the  Lathe,  the  Vise,  and  on  the  Floor.  Together 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  Sr  CO.'S  CATALOGUE.          29 

with  Workshop  Management,  Economy  of  Manufacture,  the  Steam- 
Engine,  Boiltrs,  Gears,  Belling,  etc.,  etc.  By  EGBERT  P.  WATSON. 
Illustrated  by  eighty-six  engravings.  I2mo.  .  .  .  j5te-5<J 

VATSON.— The  Theory  and  Practice  of  the  Art  of  Weaving 

by  Hand  and  Power  : 

With  Calculations  and  Tables  for  the  Use  of  those  connected  with  the 
Trade.  By  JOHN  WATSON,  Manufacturer  and  Practical  Machine- 
Maker.  Illustrated  by  large  Drawings  of  the  best  Power  Looms. 
8vo.  .  $7.50 

WATT.— The  Art  of  Soap  Making: 

A  Practical  Hand-book  of  the  Manufacture  of  Hard  and  Soft  Soaps, 
Toilet  Soaps,  etc.,  including  many  New  Processes,  and  a  Chapter  on 
the  Recovery  of  Glycerine  from  Waste  Leys.  By  ALEXANDER 
WATT.  III.  i2mo $3.00 

WEATHERLY.— Treatise  on  the  Art  of  Boiling  Sugar,  Crys- 
tallizing, Lozenge-making,  Comfits,  Gum  Goods, 
And  other  processes  for  Confectioneiy,  etc.,  in  which  are  explained, 
in  an  easy  and  familiar  manner,  the  various  Methods  of  Manufactur. 
ing  every  Description  of  Raw  and  Refined  Sugar  Goods,  as  sold  by 
Confectioners  and  others.  12010 $1.50 

WIGHTWICK.— Hints  to  Young  Architects : 

Comprising  Advice  to  those  who,  while  yet  at  school,  are  destined 
to  the  Profession;  to  such  as,  having  passed  their  pupilage,  are  about 
to  travel ;  and  to  those  who,  having  completed  their  education,  are 
about  to  practise.  Together  with  a  Model  Specification  involving  a 
great  variety  of  instructive  and  suggestive  matter.  By  GEORGB 
WIGHTWICK,  Architect.  A  new  edition,  revised  and  considerably 
enlarged;  comprising  Treatises  on  the  Principles  of  Construction 
and  Design.  By  G.  HUSKISSON  GUILLAUME,  Architect.  Numerous 
Illustrations.  One  vol.  I2tno #2.OO 

WILL. — Tables  of  Qualitative  Chemical  Analysis. 

With  an  Introductory  Chapter  on  the  Course  of  Analysis.  By  Pro- 
fessor HEINRICH  WILL,  of  Giessen,  Germany.  Third  American, 
from  the  eleventh  German  edition.  Edited  by  CHARLES  F.  HIMES, 
Ph.  D.,  Professor  of  Natural  Science,  Dickinson  College,  Carlisle,  Pa,. 
8vo.  .  $1-50 

WILLIAMS.— On  Heat  and  Steam: 

Embracing  New  Views  of  Vaporization,  Condensation,  and  Explo- 
sion. By  CHARLES  WYE  WILLIAMS^  A.  I.  C.  E.  Illustrated  8vo. 

#3  50 
WILSON.— A  Treatise  on  Steam  Boilers  : 

Their  Strength,  Construction,  and  Economical  Working.    By  ROBERT 

WILSON.     Illustrated  I2mo $2.50 

WILSON. — First  Principles  of  Political  Economy: 

With  Reference  to  Statesmanship  and  the  Progress  of  Civilization. 
By  Professor  W.  D.  WILSON,  of  the  Cornell  University.  A  new  and 
revised  edition.  I2mo $1.50 


30        HENRY   CAREY   BAIRD   &   CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 

WOHLER.— A  Hand-Bookof  Mineral  Analysis: 

By  F.  WOHLER,  Professor  of  Chemistry  in  the  University  of  Gottin- 
gen.  Edited  by  HENRY  B.  NASON,  Professor  of  Chemistry  in  the 
Renssalaer  Polytechnic  Institute,  Troy,  New  York.  Illustrated. 
I2mo $3.00 

WORSSAM.— On  Mechanical  Saws  : 

From  the  Transactions  of  the  Society  of  Engineers,  1869.  By  S.  W. 
WORSSAM,  JR.  Illustrated  by  eighteen  large  plates.  8vo.  $2.50 


RECENT   ADDITIONS. 

ANDERSON.— The  Prospector's  Hand-Book  : 

A  Guide  for  the  Prospector  and  Traveler  in  Search  of  Metal  Bearing 
or  other  Valuable  Minerals.  By  J.  W.  ANDERSON.  52  Illustrations. 
I2mo $1.50 

BEAUMONT.— Woollen  and  Worsted  Cloth  Manufacture: 
Being  a  Practical  Treatise  for  the  use  of  all  persons  employed  in  the 
manipulation  of  Textile  Fabrics.     By  ROBERT  BEAUMONT,  M.  S.  A. 
With   over   200    illustrations,   including    Sketches    of    Machinery, 
Designs,  Cloths,  etc.     391  pp.     I2mo $2.50 

BRANNT.— The  Metallic  Alloys : 

A  Practical  Guide  for  the  Manufacture  of  all  kinds  of  Alloys,  Amal- 
gams and  Solders  used  by  Metal  Workers,  especially  by  Bell  Founders, 
Bronze  Workers,  Tinsmiths,  Gold  and  Silver  Workers,  Dentists,  etc., 
etc.,  as  well  as  their  Chemical  and  Physical  Properties.  Edited 
chiefly  from  the  German  of  A.  Krupp  and  Andreas  Wildberger,  with 
additions  by  WM.  T.  BRANNT.  Illustrated.  i2mo.  $2.50 

CROSS.— The  Cotton  Yarn  Spinner: 

Showing  how  the  Preparation  should  be  arranged  for  Differen 
Counts  of  Yarns  by  a  System  more  uniform  than  has  hitherto  been 
practiced ;  by  having  a  Standard  Schedule  from  which  we  make  all 
our  Changes.  By  RICHARD  CROSS.  122  pp.  I2mo.  .  $1.25 

GRANT. — A  Hand-Book  on  the  Teeth  of  Gears  : 

Their  Curves,  Properties,  and  Practical  Construction.  By  GEORGE 
B.  GRANT.  Illustrated.  Second  Edition,  enlarged.  8vo.  $1.00 

MAKINS.— A  Manual  of  Metallurgy: 

By  GEORGE  HOGARTH  MAKINS,  M.  R.  C.  S.,  S.  C.  S.  Illustrated 
by  loo  engravings.  Second  edition  rewritten  and  much  enlarged. 
8vo.,  592  pages $3.00 


HENRY  CAREY   BAIRD   &   CO.'S  CATALOGUE.        31 

POSSELT.— Technology  of  Textile  Design  : 

Being  a  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Construction  and  Application  of 
Weaves  for  all  Textile  Fabrics,  with  minute  reference  to  the  latest 
Inventions  for  Weaving.  Containing  also  an  Appendix,  showing  the 
Analysis  and  giving  the  Calculations  necessary  for  the  Manufacture 
of  the  various  Textile  Fabrics.  By  E.  A.  POSSELT,  Head  Master 
Textile  Department,  Pennsylvania  Museum  and"  School  of  Industrial 
Art,  Philadelphia,  with  over  looo  illustrations.  292  pages. 
4to #5.00 

POSSELT. — The  Jacquard  Machine  Analysed  and  Explained: 
With  an  Appendix  on  the  Preparation  of  Jacquard  Cards,  and 
Practical  Hints  to  Learners  of  Jacquard  Designing.  By  E.  A. 
POSSELT.  With  230  illustrations  and  numerous  diagrams.  127  pp. 
4to £5.00 

ROPER. — Instructions   and   Suggestions   for   Engineers   and 

Firemen : 
By  STEPHEN  ROPER,  Engineer $2.00 

ROPER. — The  Steam  Boiler:  Its  Care  and  Management: 
By  STEPHEN  ROPER,  Engineer.     i2mo.,  tuck,  gilt  edges    .      $2.00 

ROPER. — The  Young  Engineer's  Own  Book: 

Containing  an  Explanation  of  the  Principle  and  Theories  on  which 
the  Steam  Engine  as  a  Prime  Mover  is  Based.  By  STEPHEN  ROPER, 
Engineer.  160  illustrations,  363  pages.  l8mo.,  tuck  .  $3.00 

ROSE. — Modern  Steam-Engines  : 

An  Elementary  Treatise  upon  the  Steam-Engine,  written  in  Plain 
language  ;  for  Use  in  the  Workshop  as  well  as  in  the  Drawing  Office. 
Giving  Full  Explanations  of  the  Construction  of  Modern  Steam- 
Engines :  Including  Diagrams  showing  their  Actual  operation.  To- 
gether with  Complete  but  Simple  Explanations  of  the  operations  of 
Various  Kinds  of  Valves,  Valve  Motions,  and  Link  Motions,  etc., 
thereby  Enabling  the  Ordinary  Engineer  to  Clearly  Understand  the 
Principles  Involved  in  their  Construction  and  Use,  and  to  Plot  out 
their  Movements  upon  the  Drawing  Board.  By  JOSHUA  ROSE,  M.  E. 
Illustrated  by  422  engravings.  410,  320  pages  .  .  $6.00 

ROSE. — Steam  Boilers  : 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  Boiler  Construction  and  Examination,  for  the 
Use  of  Practical  Boiler  Makers,  Boiler  Users,  and  Inspectors ;  and 
embracing  in  plain  figures  all  the  calculations  necessary  in  Designing 
or  Classifying  Steam  Boilers.  By  JOSHUA  ROSE,  M.  E.  Illustrated 
by  73  engravings.  250  pages.  8vo $2.50 

SULZ.— A  Treatise  on  Beverages  : 

Or  the  Complete  Practical  Bottler.  Full  instructions  for  Laboratory 
Work,  with  Original  Practical  Recipes  for  all  kinds  of  Carbonated 
Drinks,  Mineral  Waters,  Flavorings,  Extracts,  Syrups,  etc.  By 
CHAS.  HERMAN  SULZ,  Technical  Chemist  and  Practical  Bottler. 
Illustrated  by  428  Engravings.  818  pp.  Svo.  .  .  £10.00 


A  Great  Repository  of  Practical  and  Scientific  Information. 


On*-?  of  tho  Fullest,  Freshest  and  Most  Valuable  Hand-booka 
•*  of  the  Agrs.  Indispensable  to  Every  Practical  Man. 

NOW    READY. 
PRICE,  $2.00 

FREE  OF  MGSTAAE  TO  ANY  ADDRESS   IN  THE  WORLD. 


THE  TECHNO-CHEMICAL 
RECEIPT  BOOK: 

CONTAINING 

Several   Thousand   Receipts,    covering    the   Latest,   Most 

Important  and  Most  Useful  Discoveries  in  Chemical 

Technology,  and  their  Practical  Application 

in  the  Arts  and  the  Industries. 

Edited  chiefly  from  the  German  of  Drs.  Winckler,  Eisner,  Heintxe, 
Mierzinski,  Jacobsen,  Koller,  and  Heinzerling, 

WITH    ADDITIONS   BY 

WILLIAM  T.  BRANNT, 

Graduate  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  College  of  Eldena,  Prussia, 

AND 

WILLIAM  H.  WAHL,  PH.  D.  (Held.), 

Secretary  of  the  Franklin  Institute,  Philadelphia  ;    author  of  "Galvanoplastic  Manipulation*/' 
Illustrated  by  Seventy-eight  Engravings. 

In  one  volume,  xxxii,  495  pages,  12  mo.,  closely  printed,  containing  an  immense  amount 

and  a  great  variety  of  matter.     Elegantly  bound  in  scarlet  cloth,  gilt. 

Price  $2.00,  free  of  postage  to  any  address  in  the  world. 


above  or  any  of  our  books  sent  by  mail,  free  of  postage,  at  the  publication 
price,  to  any  address  in  the  world. 

JflSP"  Our  Neiv  and  Enlarged  Catalogue  of  Practical  and  Scientific  Books,  qb  pages  t 
8w.  ,  and  our  other  Catalogues,  the  whole  covering  every  branch  of  Science  applied  to  the 
Arts,  sent  free  and  free  of  postage  to  any  one,  in  any  part  of  the  world,  -who  willfurnnk 
Ait  a.dd-ress. 

HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO., 

Industrial  Publishers,  Booksellers  and  Importers, 

810  Walnut  Street,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  U,  S.  A. 


RETURN     CIRCULATION  DEPARTMENT 

TO^          202  Main  Library 

LOAN  PERIOD  1 

HOME  USE 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

ALL  BOOKS  MAY  BE  RECALLED  AFTER  7  DAYS 

Renewals  and  Recharges  may  be  made  4  days  prior  to  the  due  date. 

Books  may  be  Renewed  by  calling     642-3405. 

DUE  AS  STAMPED  BELOW 


FORM  NO.  DD6, 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA,  BERKELEY 
BERKELEY,  CA  94720 


